給民主黨、民建聯的公開信
Hayashi Tachitoku
我對你地要求NATO停火感到好火滾， 乜南斯拉夫狂人搞種族清洗係o岩o既咩?
波斯尼亞內戰有版你睇，塞爾維亞族o既種族清洗係1992年波斯尼亞內戰時開始
，先洗波斯尼亞回教徒，再同克羅地亞爭地盤，依家洗亞爾巴尼亞人， 唔知頭唔知路
淨識話NATO侵略南斯拉夫果o的人正一盲毛。 如果當初NATO係波斯尼亞內戰初期出兵，
咁o的回教徒就唔會俾塞爾維亞人又殺又姦，依家o係戰火中意外死o左四個中國人就要
人停火，喂！咁有得亞爾巴尼亞人死呀，你地都好自私姐....... NATO係侵略還是反侵
略？你地自己諗啦~~~
--
post by Hayashi Tachitoku
http://www.angelfire.com/hi/hayashi/
http://www.geocities.co.jp/WallStreet/5203
﹒‧°∴°﹒☆°．﹒☆‧°∴°﹒°．﹒‧°∴﹒‧°∴°﹒☆°．﹒‧°
『重視特權多於原則的人，必定兩者都失去。 』
──艾森豪威爾
『世界是混亂、矛盾以及難以理解的扭曲。』
──索羅斯
『祟洋，但不媚外。』
──柏楊
『我思，故我在。』
──笛卡兒
『愛，直至自己受傷』
──德蘭修女
『勇者憤怒，拔刃向更強者。』
──魯迅
『在相信的世界裡，有很多偽詐；在懷疑的世界裡，反而有很多真理。』
──褔澤諭吉
『三分天註定，七分靠打拼，愛拼才會贏。』
──台灣人諺語
.P.S. 不要盲目相信權威，只要你認為是受用的就不需理會他們是誰..............
*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~
此post使用香港特衰政府辦公室自動化垃圾造字[官式]
http://www.info.gov.hk/gccs/index.htm
龍
2戰時，法西斯支持下的阿族是如何清洗塞族的，足足200萬塞族人！
(43年德國黨衛軍的報告終說，他們在南的阿族代言人，一年內就屠殺了30萬塞族人，
而且很多手段連
德國人自己看了葉心驚膽跳，不但殺青壯年男子，而且老人嬰兒女人都不放過，才使2
戰後科索沃塞族只占1/10的人口）,你注意到北約和老美的發言沒有，決口不提10年之
前的事，為什麼？
Hayashi Tachitoku 撰寫於文章 <3736...@ruby.hknet.com>...
Hayashi Tachitoku
Albanian Independence During the 19th century, many of the conquered peoples
in the Balkans increasingly wanted their own nations. In 1878 Albanian
leaders met in the town of Prizren, in Kosovo, where they founded the League
of Prizren (Albanian League) to promote a free, unified Albania in all
Albanian-populated territories. The league also sought to develop Albanian
language, education, and culture, and in 1908 Albanian leaders adopted a
national alphabet based on the Latin script. Between 1910 and 1912 Albanian
nationalists waged an armed struggle against the Ottomans, who had refused
to give Albania autonomy (self-rule). The Ottomans were simultaneously
attacked and, in 1912, defeated by Serb, Greek, and Bulgarian armies in what
was later called the First Balkan War (see Balkan Wars). Albania immediately
proclaimed its independence from the Ottoman Empire. At a conference
following the war, Britain, Germany, Russia, Austria, France, and Italy
(collectively known as the Great Powers) agreed to accept Albanian
independence, but because of strong pressures from Albania's neighbors, the
Great Powers gave the Albanian-inhabited region of Kosovo to Serbia and much
of the m褰ia region to Greece. Roughly half the Albanian population was
left outside the country's borders. The Great Powers also appointed a German
prince, Wilhelm zu Wied, as Albania's ruler, but he was in power only six
months before the outbreak of World War I. During the war, Austrian, French,
Italian, Greek, Montenegrin, and Serb armies occupied Albania, and the
country lacked any political leadership. At the Paris Peace Conference after
the war, United States President Woodrow Wilson vetoed a plan by Britain,
France, and Italy to partition Albania among its neighbors. In 1920 Albania
was admitted to the newly-formed League of Nations, thereby gaining
international recognition as an independent state.
During the 1920s Albania was deeply divided between two political forces. A
conservative class of landowners and tribal leaders led by Ahmed Bey Zogu
wished to maintain the status quo while liberal intellectuals, politicians,
and merchants wanted to modernize Albania. The liberals were led by Fan S.
Noli, a U.S.-educated bishop of the Orthodox church. In 1924 a popular
revolt against the conservatives forced Zogu to flee to Yugoslavia. Noli
became prime minister of the new government and set out to build a
Western-style democracy. Six months later, suffering from internal
opposition and lacking international support, Noli was overthrown by Zogu,
with help from Yugoslavia. Zogu reigned for 14 years, first as president
(1925-1928) and then as King Zog I (1928-1939). Zog's dictatorial rule was
marked by economic stagnation, although he helped create a modern school
system and made the country somewhat more stable. Zog failed, however, to
resolve the problem of land reform, and the peasantry remained impoverished.
During Zog's reign, Italy exercised so much influence over Albania's affairs
that Albania was virtually an Italian protectorate. In April 1939, shortly
before the start of World War II, Italy invaded and occupied Albania,
sending Zog fleeing to Greece. After Nazi Germany defeated Yugoslavia and
Greece in 1941, Kosovo and m褰ia were taken from those countries and
joined to Albania, which remained under Italian control until 1943 when
German forces took it after the Italian surrender. The wartime state
disintegrated in November 1944 when the Germans withdrew. Kosovo was then
returned to Serbia (by then part of Yugoslavia) and m褰ia to Greece.
"Albania," MicrosoftR EncartaR Encyclopedia 99. c 1993-1998 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.
龍 <lung...@hotmail.com> wrote in message
news:7h6ubg$3b...@pegasus.hkstar.com...
曹孟德
. 係! 針唔拮到肉唔知痛, 之前的冷感或是錯了, 但現在我國領土直接受到侵犯, 難度
仍然不出聲嗎? 難道這叫 "自私"?
如果你說 "自私" 即是 "敵愾同仇", "人性未泯", 那我承認: "我自私".
我不反對北約制止南斯拉夫的屠殺, 但應速戰速決, 減少人命傷亡, 但現在的情況呢,
無人知道空襲到何時何日.
另外, 我很欣賞你簽名之下的名句, 因為它們與你的言論併在一起, 令我感到你很幽默
, 深懂自嘲之道. 也提高不少自己的"博學"形象.
Thomas
塞爾維亞族和波斯尼亞係南斯拉夫分裂出黎o既, (分裂南
斯拉夫又係美國背後策動) 本來兩國原本是一國, 所以分
裂後, 好多土地擁有權有紛爭, 所以先有內戰之麻
克羅地克當年又o米係同被斯尼亞打鍋甘o既
人地兄弟國內戰, 係美國多事插一把腳入黎, 好似科索沃居
然打埋一份, 戰爭被美國越攪越大!
Hayashi Tachitoku
Hayashi Tachitoku
和，不可能贏一場戰爭，大不烈顛戰役是典形例子，這場會是以意志決勝負的殘酷戰
爭，至於有關國家認同的問題我已經表達得清楚，不想爭論。
p.s.簽名內的名句是對自己的提醒，多謝你欣賞。
曹孟德 <md...@netvigator.com> wrote in message
news:7h6uo5$3c...@pegasus.hkstar.com...
現在的抗議示威是建基在中國大使館被炸, 當然, 你話之前炸人地唔嘈, 炸中國人就嘈
. 係! 針唔拮到肉唔知痛, 之前的冷感或是錯了, 但現在我國領土直接受到侵犯, 難度
仍然不出聲嗎? 難道這叫 "自私"?
如果你說 "自私" 即是 "敵愾同仇", "人性未泯", 那我承認: "我自私".
我不反對北約制止南斯拉夫的屠殺, 但應速戰速決, 減少人命傷亡, 但現在的情況呢,
無人知道空襲到何時何日.
另外, 我很欣賞你簽名之下的名句, 因為它們與你的言論併在一起, 令我感到你很幽默
, 深懂自嘲之道. 也提高不少自己的"博學"形象.
Hayashi Tachitoku 撰寫於文章 <3736...@ruby.hknet.com>...
武武
北約一開始就不應該出兵，即使出兵也必需速戰速決，
現在炸小四十多天，問題沒解決，反而令全球不穩定，
難道要滅了塞族人才滿意？
不要想像亞族人是善良的一類，其實他們也彼此彼此，
為何你會完全地相信北約的宣傳技倆？
你知道美國此次轟炸目標嗎？竟然是想殺死一半塞族軍，
令塞族軍和亞族軍有差不多對等實力！
你不覺得這是很嚴重的人權踐踏嗎？
即使目標達到，塞族和亞族之間仍然是敵對關係，
跟本就沒有解決問題！
硻
此時不炸, 以後沒機會 "誤炸".
美國這次炸大使館, 美國方面有其長中短期利益, 以後分析.
Hayashi Tachitoku <haya...@zdnetmail.ne.jp> wrote in message
news:3737...@ruby.hknet.com...
> 我估計空襲有可能進行到下半年，因為美國國會否決了派地面部隊，空襲只可以戰迫
> 和，不可能贏一場戰爭，大不烈顛戰役是典形例子，這場會是以意志決勝負的殘酷戰
> 爭，至於有關國家認同的問題我已經表達得清楚，不想爭論。
> p.s.簽名內的名句是對自己的提醒，多謝你欣賞。
>
>
> 曹孟德 <md...@netvigator.com> wrote in message
> news:7h6uo5$3c...@pegasus.hkstar.com...
> 現在的抗議示威是建基在中國大使館被炸, 當然, 你話之前炸人地唔嘈, 炸中國人就
嘈
> . 係! 針唔拮到肉唔知痛, 之前的冷感或是錯了, 但現在我國領土直接受到侵犯, 難
度
> 仍然不出聲嗎? 難道這叫 "自私"?
> 如果你說 "自私" 即是 "敵愾同仇", "人性未泯", 那我承認: "我自私".
> 我不反對北約制止南斯拉夫的屠殺, 但應速戰速決, 減少人命傷亡, 但現在的情況呢
,
> 無人知道空襲到何時何日.
> 另外, 我很欣賞你簽名之下的名句, 因為它們與你的言論併在一起, 令我感到你很幽
默
> , 深懂自嘲之道. 也提高不少自己的"博學"形象.
>
>
> Hayashi Tachitoku 撰寫於文章 <3736...@ruby.hknet.com>...
> >民主黨、民建聯：
> >
> >我對你地要求NATO停火感到好火滾， 乜南斯拉夫狂人搞種族清洗係o岩o既咩?
> >波斯尼亞內戰有版你睇，塞爾維亞族o既種族清洗係1992年波斯尼亞內戰時開始
> >，先洗波斯尼亞回教徒，再同克羅地亞爭地盤，依家洗亞爾巴尼亞人， 唔知頭唔知
路
> >淨識話NATO侵略南斯拉夫果o的人正一盲毛。 如果當初NATO係波斯尼亞內戰初期出
> 兵，
> >咁o的回教徒就唔會俾塞爾維亞人又殺又姦，依家o係戰火中意外死o左四個中國人就
要
> >人停火，喂！咁有得亞爾巴尼亞人死呀，你地都好自私姐....... NATO係侵略還是
反
硻
令塞族軍和亞族軍有差不多對等實力！"
你這些話說得很對.
當未來解放軍真的想打台灣, 就有四分之一解放軍會給消滅.
武武 <momo...@geocities.com> wrote in message
news:3737...@ruby.hknet.com...
> 你是嗜血的人嗎？你認為北約繼續炸，問題就得以解決？
> 北約一開始就不應該出兵，即使出兵也必需速戰速決，
> 現在炸小四十多天，問題沒解決，反而令全球不穩定，
> 難道要滅了塞族人才滿意？
> 不要想像亞族人是善良的一類，其實他們也彼此彼此，
> 為何你會完全地相信北約的宣傳技倆？
> 你知道美國此次轟炸目標嗎？竟然是想殺死一半塞族軍，
> 令塞族軍和亞族軍有差不多對等實力！
> 你不覺得這是很嚴重的人權踐踏嗎？
> 即使目標達到，塞族和亞族之間仍然是敵對關係，
> 跟本就沒有解決問題！
>
>
無 句 好 說 話
>民主黨、民建聯：
>
>我對你地要求NATO停火感到好火滾， 乜南斯拉夫狂人搞種族清洗係o岩o既咩?
我 夠 對 你 D 死 人 日本狗,
將 神 聖 既 靖國神社 變 成
妓 寨, 但 係 只 招 呼 美軍,
又 唔 招 呼 外 人,
我 夠 火滾 啦 !
>波斯尼亞內戰有版你睇，塞爾維亞族o既種族清洗係1992年波斯尼亞內戰時開始
>，先洗波斯尼亞回教徒，再同克羅地亞爭地盤，依家洗亞爾巴尼亞人， 唔知頭唔知路
>淨識話NATO侵略南斯拉夫果o的人正一盲毛。 如果當初NATO係波斯尼亞內戰初期出兵，
Thomas
塞族人三世紀就住係科索沃啦, 讀多些史書啦, 屎片
Hayashi Tachitoku
Serbia (Serbo-Croatian Srbija), constituent republic of the Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia (FRY), along with the republic of Montenegro. Serbia is
bounded on the north by Hungary; on the east by Romania and Bulgaria; on the
south by the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia; on the southwest by
Albania; and on the west by Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Croatia.
Between 1946 and 1991 Serbia was part of a larger federal state known as
Yugoslavia. This state consisted of five republics in addition to
Serbia-Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, and Slovenia.
It broke apart in 1991, when several of the republics declared their
independence. Serbia can be divided into three regions: the region of
Vojvodina, a large area containing fertile plains, drained by the Danube,
Sava, Tisza, and Morava rivers in the north; Šumadija, a hilly and heavily
populated area in central Serbia; and the region of Kosovo, a mountainous
area in the south. The area of Serbia is 88,361 sq km (34,116 sq mi); the
capital and largest city is Belgrade.
IIPOPULATION At the time of the 1991 census, Serbia's total population was
9,791,475; the 1996 estimate was about 9,979,116. Ethnic Serbs constitute
approximately two-thirds of the population; Albanians, the largest minority
group, represent about 17 percent of inhabitants. The rest of the population
is made up of ethnic Hungarians, Muslims, and those of mixed ethnicity. The
population of Kosovo is more than 90 percent Albanian, while Vojvodina has a
large Hungarian minority. Some Croats lived formerly in Vojvodina and
Belgrade, but most of them fled after hostilities broke out between Croats
and Serbs in 1991 in response to Croatia's declaration of independence.
The official language of Serbia is known as Serbian, one of two main forms
of the Serbo-Croatian language. The other main form is Croatian. The major
difference between Serbian and Croatian is the alphabet; Serbian uses the
Cyrillic alphabet, while Croatian is written in Latin letters. Other minorit
ies speak their own languages, such as Albanian and Hungarian. The dominant
religion is Serbian Orthodoxy, with smaller numbers of Muslims, Catholics,
and Protestants. Most Muslims live in the Sandžak region of southwestern
Serbia.
IIIECONOMY The wars that broke out in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia in
1991 and 1992 impacted the Serbian economy in a number of ways. In 1992 the
United Nations (UN) imposed sanctions on the FRY because of Serbia's support
for warring Serbs in Bosnia. These sanctions, which were strengthened in
1993, crippled Serbia's foreign trade, a key component of its economy. The
sanctions were scaled back in 1994 and suspended following the December 1995
signing of the Dayton peace accord, which ended the Bosnian war; in October
1996 the UN Security Council voted to formally end the sanctions. Serbia's
economy was also damaged by the flight of large numbers of draft-age men,
intellectuals, and artists after the wars began in the early 1990s, as well
as the diversion of much of the republic's economic resources to the
military.
The Serbian economy is based on a mixture of agricultural and industrial
production. The most important agricultural area is in Vojvodina, and the
major crops include wheat, corn, sugar beets, hemp, flax, and fruit. Cattle,
sheep, and pigs are also raised. Formerly one of the chief copper producers
of Europe, Serbia's mining and manufacturing industries suffered in the
economic decline, and many factories became idle. Economic output for the
republic dropped by more than one-third between 1991 and 1992 alone. High
inflation and unemployment levels have also plagued the economy.
IVGOVERNMENT Serbia adopted a new constitution in September 1990. This
constitution formally stripped Kosovo and Vojvodina of their autonomous
status. It also laid the groundwork for multiparty elections. The government
is led by a president. The legislative organ is the National Assembly, a
unicameral body consisting of 250 deputies elected to four-year terms. In
parliamentary elections held in late 1997, the Socialist Party of Serbia
(SPS), a leftist coalition led by former Serbian president Slobodan
Miloševi? won 110 seats; the Serbian Radical Party took 81 seats; and the
Serbian Renewal Movement 45 seats; the remaining seats went to smaller
groups.
VHISTORY Serbia was at one time part of the ancient country of Illyria. The
Romans conquered it in AD 44 and governed it as the province of Moesia. The
Goths began attacking the area in the 3rd century, but after 395 it was part
of the Byzantine Empire. During the 7th century, Serbs settled in the area
west of the Morava River and subsequently gave allegiance to the Byzantines.
AOttoman Control The Serbs were united by Stefan Nemanja, who established
the first kingdom of Serbia about 1168. Serbia gradually expanded until,
under Stefan Dušan (reigned 1331-1355), it controlled much of what is now
the FRY, in addition to Albania and Greece. At the same time, however, the
Ottoman Empire, based in what is now Turkey, was also expanding. In 1389 the
Serbian army was defeated by the Ottomans at Kosovo in the Battle of Kosovo.
Sporadic fighting continued until 1459, when the Ottomans captured
Smederevo, south of Belgrade. Serbia then came under direct Ottoman rule.
After 345 years of subjugation, the Serbs were reunited under Djordje
Petrovi? known as Karadjordje. Beginning in 1804 they waged a nine-year
revolt, but the Ottomans regained control in 1813. Two years later a second
revolt was led by Milo?Obrenovi? Within a few months most of Serbia was free
of Ottoman domination. Obrenovi?was recognized as hereditary prince in 1817,
and Serbia was granted limited self-government. Following the Russo-Turkish
War of 1828 and 1829 (see Russo-Turkish Wars), Serbia gained greater
autonomy, and the number of Ottoman garrisons was reduced.
Obrenovi?had been implicated in the 1817 assassination of Karadjordje. This
led to an intense rivalry between the two dynasties. An arbitrary ruler,
Obrenovi?was forced to abdicate in 1839. He was succeeded by two of his
sons. In 1842 Karadjordje's son, Aleksandar, acceded to the throne, but he
was deposed in 1858, and the Obrenovi?dynasty was restored. Mikhail
Obrenovi? son of Milo? engineered a total Ottoman withdrawal from Serbia in
1867. However, in 1868 he was assassinated, and his young cousin Milan
gained the throne.
BAustro-Hungarian Control During the Russo-Turkish War of 1877 and 1878,
Serbia and Russia joined forces to defeat the Ottomans in the Balkans. The
1878 Congress of Berlin recognized Serbian independence, but in effect made
the country subservient to Austria-Hungary. With Austro-Hungarian support,
Milan proclaimed himself king in 1882, and in 1885 he declared war on
Bulgaria, which he sought to subjugate, along with Eastern Rumelia (now part
of Bulgaria). The Serbs were quickly routed but saved from conquest by
Austrian intervention. The Bulgarian fiasco antagonized the powerful Radical
Party, a liberal reform group, which in 1889 wrote a more liberal
constitution and forced Milan to abdicate.
Milan's son, Aleksandar I Obrenovi? who was first proclaimed king under a
regency, assumed the throne in 1893. However, his reactionary and generally
corrupt regime made him extremely unpopular, and he was assassinated in
1903. The Serbian legislature then selected Petar Karadjordjevi?as king. He
liberalized the government, and his friend Nikola Paši? founder of the
Radical Party, took control of foreign policy as premier.
Serbian relations with Austria deteriorated badly during the so-called Pig
War (1905-1907), a customs dispute, and worsened after 1908 when
Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1912 and 1913 Serbia took
an active part in the Balkan Wars, by which it gained both prestige and
territory in Macedonia; it also received the district of Novi Pazar and
Kosovo-Metohija. Austria-Hungary then became alarmed by Serbia's growing
strength in the Balkans.
CWorld War I Tension was already extremely high on June 28, 1914, when the
heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, and his
wife were assassinated by a Serb nationalist, Gavrilo Princip, at Sarajevo,
Bosnia. The Austro-Hungarian government, holding Serbia responsible,
declared war and in August invaded Serbia. The Serbs repelled the invaders
until October 1915, when Bulgaria also invaded. By December the country had
been occupied by the Central Powers; the Serbian army and government fled to
the Greek island of Corfu (Kérkira) in 1916.
DUnion with Yugoslavia The government in exile agreed to the terms of the
Corfu Declaration calling for Slavic unity. After the war, in 1918, the
leaders of Serbia, Croatia, and Montenegro proclaimed the Kingdom of the
Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, which became the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929.
During World War II, in 1941, the Germans invaded Serbia and established a
pro-Fascist puppet state, headed by Milan Nedi? After the defeat of the Axis
Powers in 1945, a Yugoslav republic was declared, and Serbia became a
constituent republic with limited powers.
Beginning in 1989, Serbia tried to impose its control over the other
republics of Yugoslavia. Slovenia and Croatia immediately resisted, followed
subsequently by Macedonia and the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Delegations from the republics tried during 1990 and early 1991 to work out
a compromise. Serbia showed no signs of willingness to compromise, however,
and Slovenia and Croatia declared their independence in June 1991. Serbia
then demanded that the existing borders be changed, in order to allow it to
annex strategically key areas. The Serbian leadership used the presence of
ethnic Serbs in these areas to justify its demands. Macedonia declared its
independence in November 1991, with the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina
following suit in 1992. Serbia and Montenegro subsequently declared
themselves the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, but the international
community refused to recognize the country and denied Serbia and Montenegro
Yugoslavia's seat in the United Nations (UN), insisting that the federation
reapply for UN membership. By May 1996 the federation had been recognized as
a country by the European Union (EU) but had not yet been recognized by a
number of other countries, including the United States.
Under the leadership of Slobodan Miloševi? who became president of Serbia in
1989, the Serbian government played an active role in the conflicts in
Bosnia and Croatia (See Yugoslav Succession, Wars of). During and after the
wars, there was mounting evidence that Miloševi?had been involved throughout
the war in providing financial and military backing to the nationalist Serb
campaigns in both republics, and he received international criticism for
atrocities committed by Serbs against Muslims and Croats. Miloševi?and his
party, the SPS, maintained a strong hold on power in Serbia, imprisoning or
ousting political rivals and tightly controlling the media, including the
Belgrade daily newspaper, Borba, which was brought under state control in
January 1995. Politika, Belgrade's most influential newspaper, had been
under Miloševi?s influence since early 1988.
The Miloševi?government was also criticized for its treatment of ethnic
minorities in Serbia, especially in the minority-dominated areas of Kosovo,
Vojvodina, and Sandžak. In Kosovo, which has been under military occupation
since 1989, many Albanians have been fired from their jobs, evicted from
their homes, or subjected to other forms of discrimination. Albanian
children have frequently been prevented from attending state schools, as
during the period from September 1990 to September 1994. As a result,
thousands of Albanians fled Serbia, and many others in Kosovo agitated for
independence or union with Albania. Serbia's Muslim inhabitants, who are
concentrated in the Sandžak region, and ethnic Hungarians, who live
primarily in Vojvodina, have also been persecuted by Miloševi?s regime, and
thousands have fled the republic.
In August 1994 Miloševi?broke ties with the Serb leadership in Bosnia and
closed the border between the two republics. In November 1995 he represented
the Bosnian Serbs in peace talks, and in December he signed the Dayton peace
accord along with Bosnian president Alija Izetbegovi?and Croatian president
Franjo Tudjman. In the fall of 1996 Miloševi?and Izetbegovi?agreed to
establish full diplomatic relations between Serbia and Bosnia and
Herzegovina. Miloševi?proclaimed Yugoslavia's respect for Bosnia's
territorial integrity, and Izetbegovi?agreed to recognize the FRY as the
successor to the former Yugoslavia.
In November Miloševi?annulled the results of Serbian municipal elections
after early returns showed the SPS losing to the opposition Zajedno
(Together) coalition, which includes both Serbian nationalists and liberal
reformers. The nullification produced widespread protests in Belgrade and
other cities, with demonstrators marching daily and calling for Miloševi?to
recognize the election results. The protests were the largest ever faced by
the Serbian president. Bowing to domestic and international pressure,
Serbia's parliament voted in February 1997 to reinstate the opposition
victories. However, Zajedno quickly crumbled into bickering factions and
Miloševi?recovered his political strength. Constitutionally barred from
seeking a third term in September's presidential election, Miloševi?sought
the presidency of the FRY and was elected by the FRY parliament in July.
Following the election, Miloševi?resigned from the Serbian presidency, and
Dragan Tomic became interim president.
After three presidential elections failed because of low voter turnout or
the failure of any candidate to draw at least 50 percent of the vote, Milan
Milutinovi? an ally of Miloševi? was elected president of Serbia in the
fourth election in December 1997. Milutinovi?defeated an ultranationalist,
Vojislav Seselj, despite widespread evidence of election fraud.
Unrest increased among Kosovo's Albanian population in 1997 and early 1998.
After the killing in February 1998 of Serbian police officers by the Kosovo
Liberation Army in Priština, Serbian police and Yugoslav military forces
began sweeping attacks on ethnic Albanians in the region. The Serbian forces
had killed more than 150 ethnic Albanians, including women and children, by
May. The international community threatened Yugoslavia with sanctions if
Miloševi?allowed the bloodshed to continue.
Contributed By:
Sabrina P. Ramet
"Serbia," MicrosoftR EncartaR Encyclopedia 99. c 1993-1998 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.
Albania (Albanian Shqiperia, "Country of the Eagle"), republic in
southeastern Europe, officially known as the Republic of Albania. Lying
along the northwestern edge of the Balkan Peninsula, it is bordered by the
Adriatic Sea to the west, Greece to the south, the Former Yugoslav Republic
of Macedonia (FYROM) to the east, and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
(FRY) to the north and northeast. The Yugoslav republic of Montenegro lies
to the north while the republic of Serbia lies to the northeast.
Separated from Italy by only 76 km (47 mi) of the Adriatic, Albania,
throughout its history, has been occupied by Italian powers expanding
eastward into the Balkans or by Balkan powers expanding westward. In the
1500s Albania came under the rule of the Ottoman Empire (centered in what is
now Turkey), and did not gain its independence until 1912. From 1944 to
1990, it was a staunchly Communist state, and in 1991 Albania began its
transition to a democratic state and market economy. The capital and largest
city is Tirana.
IILAND AND RESOURCES With a total area of 28,748 sq km (11,100 sq mi),
Albania is roughly the size of the state of Massachusetts. The greatest
distance from north to south is about 345 km (about 215 mi) and from east to
west about 150 km (about 95 mi).
ANatural Regions Albania is a mountainous country in which about 70 percent
of the land lies above 300 m (1000 ft). Its mountains, which form a broad
backbone from northwest to southeast, rise abruptly from the coastal
lowlands to elevations of more than 2400 m (8000 ft). In the north are the
most rugged mountains, where a massive limestone extension of the Dinaric
Alps reaches inland for 40 km (25 mi) from nearby Montenegro. In the central
uplands lies Mount Korab, the country's highest peak, at 2764 m (9068 ft).
Strong erosive forces have created bare rock surfaces, deeply incised
valleys, and a scarcity of meadowlands in this region. South of the Alps,
the uplands are lower and more rounded, extending southeastward in a series
of plateaus and ranges that merge with the Pindus Mountains in northern
Greece.
The western coastal region consists of low hills and lower reaches of
valleys that open onto the coastal plain. This is Albania's most densely
populated area and comprises most of the land used for farming. Even here a
series of flat areas are interrupted by hill country. Most of the soils are
difficult to farm because of drainage and water-supply problems. Only the
younger, lighter soils near the many rivers are easily cultivated, but are
often flooded as well. Albania is subject to occasional earthquakes.
BRivers and Lakes Albania's longest river is the Drin, total length 282 km
(175 mi), which originates at two headwaters in Serbia and the FYROM and
flows through northern Albania. Other major rivers include the Seman, the
Shkumbin, and the Aóös (Vjöse). Because most of Albania's rivers flow at
high elevations, they are usually mountain torrents by the time they reach
the coastal plain. In the mountains, rivers have cut deep gorges with
near-vertical walls as high as 90 m (300 ft) above the water. The gorges
make irrigation difficult, but are well suited for the huge dams that give
Albania and nearby countries cheap hydroelectric power. Along the lower
course of the rivers, irrigation is also difficult because sediment-laden
streams often break out of their beds and shift channels. Irrigation is
feasible only in valley bottoms. Albania also shares three large lakes with
neighboring states. Lake Scutari in the north lies partly in Montenegro,
Lake Ohrid in the east lies partly in the FYROM, while Lake Prespa in the
southeast lies in Albania, the FYROM, and Greece.
CPlant and Animal Life Some 38 percent of Albania is forested with mixed
stands of willow, poplar, elm, pine, oak, and white beech trees. Many of the
forests near transportation routes have been heavily logged and some have
given way to sheep pastures. In these areas, the soil is either washed or
blown away during the summer drought, and even in humid months the grass
grows sparsely in clumps. Because of heavy grazing by livestock in the
summer and the summer drought, much of Albania is unfavorable for wildlife.
Wolves, deer, and boars have been pushed back into the most remote forests.
Wild fowl, however, are abundant in lowland forests.
DNatural Resources Albania is rich in natural resources. The southwestern
part of the country is well endowed with natural gas and petroleum. The
northeastern region has large reserves of mineral deposits including
chromium, copper, iron, and nickel. Large deposits of lignite (a soft, brown
coal) are found near Tirana, and natural asphalt is mined near Selenic? For
centuries the forests have provided fuel in wood and charcoal.
EClimate Albania's climate varies with topography. The coastal lowlands have
a Mediterranean climate with arid, almost cloudless summers featuring high
temperatures both day and night. Winters are rainy but mild, and in the
southern lowlands freezing temperatures are rare. In the mountains rain
falls much more often in summer, and the northern regions experience more
humidity than the south. Temperatures may soar in the daytime, but nights
are much cooler. In winter the mountains, like the lowlands, are subject to
heavy and frequent thunderstorms, but in the mountains storms are
accompanied by heavy snow.
The average temperatures in August, the hottest month, range from 17?C
(63?F) to 31?C (88?F). In January, the coldest month, they range from 2?C
(36?F) to 12?C (54?F). December, the wettest month, has an average rainfall
of 211 mm (8.3 in) while the driest months, July and August, receive only 32
mm (1.3 in) of rain. On the coast annual rainfall averages 1200 mm (47 in),
but it may be as great as 4060 mm (160 in) in the mountains.
FEnvironmental Issues Both the former Communist government and new
administrations have harvested timber in vast quantities. As a result, many
forests are degraded, wildlife is threatened, and farms have taken over land
once forested. The extraction of oil and minerals has also created
environmental problems, contaminating air, soil, and groundwater,
particularly in central Albania. Public education about conservation,
pollution controls, and recycling is limited, and the government has focused
most of its resources on economic growth rather than environmental concerns.
However, in the early 1990s several environmental interest groups were
established, and the government created a committee to educate the public
and offer solutions to environmental problems.
IIITHE PEOPLE OF ALBANIA APopulation and Settlement In 1997 Albania's
population estimate was 3,299,757, resulting in an average density of 115
persons per sq km (297 per sq mi). More and more people have left rural
areas for urban ones, particularly in the northern districts, such that in
1996 some 38 percent of the population lived in urban areas, compared to
one-fifth in 1950. Albania has had one of the highest birthrates in Europe
since the end of World War II (1939-1945) while the death rate has been one
of the continent's lowest. A high rate of population growth was state policy
under the Communist regime, which viewed it as essential to Albania's
strength and prosperity.
BPrincipal Cities Tirana, in the central region, is the capital and largest
city. Albania's second largest city, Durrës, lies on the Adriatic coast to
the west and is by far the country's largest seaport. Other large cities
include Elbasan in central eastern Albania, Shkodër in the northwest, and
the port of Vlor?in the south central region.
CEthnic Groups Albanians are among the most ancient ethnic groups in
southeastern Europe. Their ancestors, the Illyrians, were an Indo-European
people who settled in the Balkans long before the Greeks. Modern-day Albania
consists almost exclusively of ethnic Albanians, who call themselves
Shqipetars (Sons of the Eagle). Only about 2 percent of Albania's residents
are of non-Albanian heritage, most of whom are Greek. About 2.2 million
ethnic Albanians live outside the republic in Kosovo (a region in Serbia),
the western FYROM, and southern Montenegro.
Albanians are divided by the Shkumbin River into two major dialect groups:
the Ghegs in the north and the Tosks in the south. The Ghegs, who make up
two-thirds of Albanians, are less intermarried with non-Albanians than the
Tosks, who throughout history were more often subjected to foreign rule and
other foreign influences. In the past, the Ghegs were organized in clans and
the Tosks in a semifeudal society, but the Communists largely erased both
types of organization. Before World War II the Ghegs dominated Albanian
politics, but after the war many Tosks came to power because the new
Communist government drew most of its support from Tosks.
DLanguage The official language of Albania is Albanian. Because Albanian
evolved from the extinct Illyrian language, it is the only modern
representative of a distinct branch of the Indo-European language family.
Tosks and Ghegs speak different dialects of Albanian, but both groups can
understand each other. Tosk became the official standard dialect under the
Communists and remains so today. See Albanian Language.
EReligion With 65 percent of its population Muslim, Albania is Europe's only
predominantly Islamic state. Orthodox Christians, living mostly in southern
Albania, make up 20 percent of the population, and Roman Catholics, mainly
in the north, make up another 13 percent. Religious divisions in Albania are
not significant, and religious tolerance is such that members of the same
family sometimes belong to different religions. Most Muslim Albanians are
traditional Sunnites, but about one-fourth belong to the Bektashi sect, a
tolerant, unorthodox order.
The Communist government outlawed all religions in 1967, making Albania the
world's first officially atheist country. Places of worship were closed,
church property was confiscated, religious services were banned, and
religious practitioners were persecuted. The ban on religion was lifted in
1990. Many churches and mosques have been rebuilt or reopened, and a growing
number of people express religious beliefs.
FEducation Illiteracy in Albania, which had long been widespread, was
dramatically lowered by the Communists; in 1995 the literacy rate had
climbed to 72 percent of the adult population. Education is compulsory for
children between the ages of 6 and 14. In 1995 nearly all school-age
children attended primary school, but only 35 percent attended secondary
school. Several universities, including the University of Tirana (founded in
1957), operate in Albania. The Communists encouraged education for women,
and today enrollment rates for girls are roughly equal to those for boys in
all levels of schooling.
Under Communist rule, education was also used to indoctrinate students with
Communist beliefs. Before entering college, students were required to work
for one year; after finishing their studies, another year of work and
military training was required. After Communism collapsed, reforms removed
politics and ideology from schools, although schools continue to receive
large subsidies from the state. Work and military requirements were also
dropped.
GWay of Life Traditional clothing consists of colorfully embroidered shirts
and dresses and in some regions loose-fitting pants for women. Traditional
clothing was discouraged under the Communists in favor of inexpensive,
modern clothing made by the state. Since the democratic changes in
government, people have more choice in clothing, particularly in urban
areas. Traditional costumes are still worn in many rural and upland areas,
especially among women.
The Communists greatly expanded housing in rural and urban areas. Urban
homes were owned by the state, consisting chiefly of apartment blocks with
attached cultural and recreational facilities and state-owned stores. In the
countryside dwellings were usually one- or two-story family houses, mostly
for peasants living on collective farms, and small apartment blocks for
workers on state farms. As a result of post-Communist reforms, tenants in
small apartments were allowed to own their homes free of charge. People who
lived in larger dwellings could buy them from the state for small fees. Over
the next few years, many state properties became private and a market for
private homes developed. Still, housing construction in the mid-1990s did
not keep pace with the country's high rates of birth and migration to
cities. As a result, some cities were overcrowded and the number of shanty
dwellings grew.
The Communists ended much of the traditional, male-dominated clan system and
guaranteed equal rights to women. Aspects of the clan system survived,
especially in the highlands, but men there have considerably less authority
today. The legal age for marriage was 18 years old for both sexes and access
to divorce was equalized between spouses. However, virtually no birth
control was available to women because the state wanted them to bear
children. Since the democratic reforms, women have become more organized and
established their own associations. Nonetheless, women's participation in
the country's political life remains limited.
For recreation, many Albanians watch television, play sports such as soccer
and volleyball, and walk in the city centers. Under Communism,
state-subsidized holiday centers were provided for families, many of whom
traveled to the coast or visited the mountains during the summer. However,
when the subsidies were removed in 1993, vacations became too expensive for
all but a few Albanians. Even fewer can afford to visit foreign countries.
HSocial Problems The standard of living has improved in Albania since the
collapse of the Communist system, but the gap between rich and poor
continues to grow. The newly rich are mostly entrepreneurs who have taken
advantage of growth opportunities, while the newly poor are those who
depended on the state welfare system and, in the absence of that system,
suffer. Homelessness and hunger are higher now than under the Communists.
Democratic reforms in the early 1990s also brought a growth in crime, in
part because controls once exercised by the state and police were lifted.
The police were quickly restructured and have succeeded in stopping the
worst excesses, but organized crime continues.
IVCULTURE Albania's distinctive culture also borrows from the Greeks,
Romans, Byzantines, Turks, Slavs, and Italians, who conquered the Balkans.
Despite the foreign influences, Albanian culture retains a remarkable degree
of homogeneity (sameness in composition).
ALiterature Under Ottoman rule (16th century to 20th century), Turkish and
Greek Orthodox stories and myths played an important part in Albanian
folklore. Tales were passed down through the generations in the form of
heroic songs, legends, and epics. This oral tradition helped the native
language and national identity survive until written texts emerged. The
oldest known document in the Albanian language dates to 1462. In the late
19th century, under Ottoman rule, the brothers Naim and Sami Frasheri
developed an underground Albanian literature by combining linguistic purity
and patriotism. This nationalist movement inspired many writers in later
decades, including the lyric poet Gjergj Fishta. Another prominent
nationalist writer was Fan Noli, a Western-educated Orthodox bishop and
leader of the country during the 1920s. In addition to writing books, Noli
translated western European books and poems into Albanian. Under the
Communists, censorship was strict, topics permissible for discussion were
few, and as a result, the country's literature was deadened. After the
collapse of one-party rule, literature was freed of most censorship and many
books are now published and distributed in the country. Perhaps the
best-known living Albanian writer is Ismail Kadare, author of the novel The
General of the Dead Army (1963).
BArt and Architecture Painting in Albania was strongly influenced by
Byzantine art in the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century), although by
the end of the early Renaissance (15th century to 17th century) Italian
influence was strong. The painting of icons (religious symbols) grew as a
form of both public, or displayed, art and folk art. The style of icon
painting, created in the mid-18th century, remained virtually unchanged
through the early 20th century. Notable Albanian artists of the 20th century
include Vangjush Mijo and Androniqi Zenge, both of whom are credited with
introducing Western-style impressionism to Albania in the mid-1930s. Odhise
Paskal, another 20th-century artist, sculpted Albanian heroes. Folk arts
today include clothing decorated with delicate silver ornaments,
wood-crafted items for the home, and woolen rugs.
The oldest architectural monuments in Albania date from the 1st millennium
BC and were constructed by the Illyrians. From the middle of the 1st
millennium BC through the middle of the 1st millennium AD, the Greeks and
Romans who occupied Albania built structures still visible in urban and
rural landscapes. In the Middle Ages, Christian religious architecture
emerged in Albania's Christian north while Islamic and Turkish-style
architecture emerged in the south. Until the mid-20th century, most Albanian
cities were dominated by two-story stone residences with tiled roofs. In
wooded regions, houses were made of boards rather than stone; in coastal
regions, they were clay, adobe, or reed with coatings of clay. Today,
mass-produced Soviet-style housing predominates in urban and suburban
settings while traditional architecture predominates in rural and
mountainous regions.
CMusic and Dance Like the literature native to Albania, Albanian folk music
often contains themes of honor, loyalty, and courage. Styles range from the
heroic songs of the mountains to the more musically complex lieder (a type
of ballad), which is accompanied by instruments and common in the south. The
most common traditional instrument is the lahute (lute), which is similar to
the Slavic gusle. Also in the south, saze (small orchestras) composed of
four or five instruments play music for folk dancing on special occasions.
Notable folk musicians of the late 20th century include Tefta Tashko, Maria
Paluca, and Gjorgjija Filce. Two of the most distinguished composers of
Albanian music are Kristi Kono and the writer, bishop, and political leader
Fan Noli. Traditional dance is still widely practiced, especially in more
remote villages. Because of Islamic influences, especially in the south,
women and men often do not dance together in public.
DTheater and Film Theater was neither popular nor widespread in Albania
before World War I (1914-1918). The first Albanian play, Emma, was written
in 1887 by an Italo-Albanian, Anton Santori, and dealt with themes of the
Albanian diaspora (migration to other countries). Instead of accurately
portraying daily life, prewar drama depicted the romantic patriotism of the
past. Under the Communists, theater became a weapon of propaganda, and new
theaters and plays with Communist themes were encouraged. The plays,
however, were subjected to more rigorous censorship than written literature,
thereby crushing much creativity and stunting the growth of a native
theater. Foreign theater companies were also banned. Nevertheless, a few
talented playwrights, including Loni Papa, emerged in this period. In the
mid-1990s theater continued to lag behind Albanian literature in its
development.
Cinema is also undeveloped. During the Communist period, films, like plays,
focused on heroics. Popular themes included the anti-Turk struggles of folk
hero Skenderbeg, Albanian resistance to assimilation by foreigners, and the
clash between tradition and change. Although there are fewer political
restrictions on film today than in the Communist era, a lack of money and
technical resources continues to hamper the growth of Albanian film.
ELibraries and Museums Albania is home to many museums of archaeology;
local, military, and natural history; ethnography (the study of cultures);
and religious and secular (nonreligious) art. Notable museums in Tirana
include the National Museum of Archaeology (founded in 1948). Throughout the
20th century the holdings of Albania's libraries have grown dramatically.
The country's largest library, the National Library (1922) in Tirana,
acquired many of its one million books through Communist confiscation of
private libraries. The library system at the University of Tirana (1957)
also features a large collection.
VECONOMY Albania emerged from the Communist era as the poorest country in
Europe. Under the Communists, the state controlled all economic activities;
private ownership and private enterprise were forbidden. Because the state
tended to invest in heavy industry, the popular demand for consumer goods
was neglected. Furthermore, the constitution did not allow other countries
to invest in or aid Albania. On the other hand, there was little
unemployment since the state guaranteed almost everyone a job.
In the early 1990s Albania's new, democratically elected leaders started a
far-reaching program to reform Albania's economy. Many state businesses were
privatized, key decisions about production and demand were taken away from
the state, and restrictions on trade and foreign investment were lifted. At
first, between 1989 and 1992, the disruption brought by the end of the
Communist era and the start of market reforms led to a steep economic
decline with soaring unemployment and widespread poverty. However, in 1993
Albania's gross domestic product (GDP) grew by 11 percent; in 1994 by 7
percent; and in 1995 by 6 percent-the highest growth in Europe. From 1992 to
1995 inflation dropped from a yearly average of 226 percent to 7 percent,
and by 1995 the state controlled only 40 percent of the total economy. The
rapid growth was due mainly to a recovery in farming spurred by rapid
privatization and land reforms. In 1996 GDP was $2.69 billion, or about $820
a person.
Foreign aid, initially critical during the economic transformation, has
become less important since the recovery in farming. However, the country
still relies on tens of thousands of Albanians working in Greece, Italy, and
Germany who send hard currency home to support their families. While living
conditions for most Albanians have improved and consumer goods and services
are more available now than they were under Communism, poverty is still
extensive. Other problems included a failing infrastructure, obsolete
machinery, lack of raw materials, a shortage of skilled workers and
managers, and poor labor discipline.
ALabor In 1996 the labor force numbered 1.6 million people. Some 41 percent
of these workers were women. The largest share of the labor force, 55
percent, worked in agriculture; 23 percent worked in manufacturing, mining,
and construction; and the remaining 22 percent worked in transportation,
communications, trade, public administration, and various other services.
The unemployment rate, which peaked at 40 percent in 1992, fell to 15
percent by 1995. However, as more people migrated from the country to
cities, cities experienced a job shortage. As a result, many of the new city
dwellers depend on state benefits for survival.
Under the Communist regime, free labor unions were outlawed and the ruling
party tightly controlled the workplace. During 1991 the democratic
government allowed independent unions to form, the most important of which
is the Union of Independent Trade Unions of Albania. The former
government-controlled union is now the free Confederation of Albanian Trade
Unions, to which most state workers belong.
BAgriculture Under the Communists, agriculture was collectivized (worked by
the people collectively) and prices were strictly controlled by the
government, which oversaw 120 state farms and 420 agricultural collectives.
In the early decades of Communist rule, large resources were spent on
projects to reclaim, irrigate, and fertilize farms. About half the labor
force worked in agriculture, and the country met nearly all food needs from
its own farms, as it still does today. By the mid-1970s Albania was
self-sufficient in grain production. Despite the successes, agricultural
production was hindered by lack of machinery, poor management, lack of
incentives for farmers, and the persistence of traditional farming methods.
A series of land reforms beginning in 1991 transformed Albanian agriculture.
State farms and cooperatives were taken apart, almost all arable land (21
percent of the country's total land area) was privatized, and peasants were
allowed to raise crops and livestock for profit. In addition, a free market
for farm produce was established, and steps were taken to modernize the farm
sector. While Albania was almost totally dependent on foreign aid for food
during the transition years from 1991 to 1993, by 1994 the reforms began to
pay off. Production on farms grew by 15 percent that year, and farming grew
from about one-third of GDP in the 1980s to 55 percent of GDP in 1996.
Important crops are wheat, corn, sugar beets, sunflower seeds, tobacco,
fruit, and potatoes. Albanian farmers have shifted away from industrial
crops like cotton, partly because the country's textile industry is
declining. Numbers of livestock, especially cattle, have grown, as has the
dairy industry. Meat, more affordable than it was under the Communist
regime, is becoming a more regular part of Albanians' diets. In the
mid-1990s about half of Albania's exports were unprocessed goods, with food
and cattle occupying a high percentage. However, in many villages mules and
donkeys were still used for transportation and cattle still pulled farm
tools.
CForestry and Fishing Forests cover 38 percent of Albania, mostly with
willow, alder, tamarisk, poplar, oak, maple, hornbeam, lime, elm, beech, and
conifer. The country's forests provide wood and fuel, as they have for
centuries. Since the end of Communist rule, much of Albania's timber
harvesting and processing has been performed either by privatized businesses
once owned by the state or by new businesses. The management of forests,
however, remains in state hands, and in the mid-1990s forests could be cut
only for domestic use. Despite Albania's location on the Adriatic Sea,
fishing is not a significant industry, and domestic markets for freshwater
and saltwater food products are limited.
DMining Albania is rich in mineral resources, including large reserves of
chromium, copper, and iron-nickel. The country also has smaller deposits of
gold, silver, bauxite, magnesite, and zinc. In 1994 chrome, found at
Pogradec in eastern Albania and in the Drin River valley, accounted for 18
percent of all Albanian exports and was the country's biggest earner of
foreign currency. Albania is the world's third largest producer of chromium
and the only country in Europe with significant reserves, estimated at more
than 33 million metric tons of recoverable ore (5 percent of known world
deposits).
In 1991 and 1992 mining production collapsed and the mining workforce was
halved to around 10,000 workers. Labor is now concentrated in chrome and
copper, where it is believed reserves can support production until about
2025. Like the rest of the country's industry, mining suffers from outdated
equipment and technology, disruption of production and supply lines, and
lack of managerial expertise. Moreover, most reserves lie in deep deposits
in remote and mountainous areas of Albania's north and east, making them
more expensive to reach. The government has begun to modernize the mining
sector, mostly by attracting foreign investment, but investors have not been
easy to find.
EManufacturing Between the early 1960s and the late 1980s Albania developed
a diversified industrial base, but when the Communist period ended, almost
all manufacturing stopped. Employment in manufacturing dropped from 325,000
in 1989 to 126,000 in 1993, and industrial output fell by 74 percent between
1990 and 1994. In 1996 industry (including manufacturing, mining, and
construction) made up 21 percent of Albania's GDP. Revival of manufacturing
is vital for the country's recovery. The country's chief manufactured
products include machinery and equipment, cement, soap, furniture, bricks,
footwear, textiles, cigarettes, and electronic equipment. A growing
percentage of the manufacturing sector is owned privately, and the
government continues to encourage privatization. Because manufacturers still
rely on obsolete equipment and technology, modernization has become a high
priority for newly privatized firms.
FEnergy Because of torrential rivers well suited for hydroelectric plants,
Albania is largely self-sufficient in energy. However, businesses and
households use more energy than in the past, and outdated and worn-out
equipment is hard pressed to meet the demand. Hydroelectric plants, mostly
on the Drin, Mat, and Bistric?rivers, yield 96 percent of the country's
generating capacity. Albania has moderate oil reserves located near the
central Albanian town of Berat. Of the estimated 490 million metric tons of
reserves, about 10 percent has been extracted. The oil is pumped by pipeline
to a large refinery near Elbasan and to the seaport of Vlor? Natural gas is
also extracted and some deposits of lignite are mined in the central and
southern mountain regions.
GTourism As a result of the government's isolationist policies, Albania had
no tourist industry until recently. However, the country's Mediterranean
coastline and mostly unspoiled mountainous interior offer great tourist
potential. An estimated 56,000 tourists visited Albania in 1996. The major
tourist destinations include Tirana, the southern coastal areas, the
northern mountains, and several archaeological sites. Most tourists are
Albanian emigrants from the West as well as Greeks, Italians, Germans, and
other western Europeans. The country's one international airport in Rinas,
near Tirana, was renovated in the mid-1990s. If tourism continues to grow,
other facilities, services, and infrastructure will also need improvements.
HForeign Trade In the two decades after World War II, Albania traded almost
exclusively with other Communist states, mostly in Eastern Europe. Following
a rift with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1961, Albania
shifted most of its trade to China until 1978, when a rift ended relations
with China. In the late 1960s Albania renewed some economic ties with
Western Europe, and after the fall of Communism, Albania conducted most of
its trade with the European Union (EU). Italy is Albania's most important
trading partner, accounting for half of exports and 40 percent of imports.
Greece, Bulgaria, Germany, Turkey, and several states of former Yugoslavia
are Albania's other major trading partners.
In the economic decline following the end of Communist rule both imports and
exports suffered, although by the mid-1990s both were again growing, with
imports dominant. Exports totaled $165 million in 1995, while imports cost
$735 million, leaving Albania with a large trade deficit (the difference
between exports and imports). Usually, when a country like Albania has a
large trade deficit, it is cause for economic concern, but following
Albania's recession, growing imports were seen as a sign of economic
recovery. Imports consist mostly of food and automobiles as well as
machinery, industrial equipment, fertilizers, and consumer goods. Exports
are mostly raw materials and fuels, including, in order of importance,
chrome and chrome products, copper, nickel, furs, tobacco, bitumen,
electricity, and petroleum. About 70 percent of all exports now come from
the private sector.
ICurrency and Banking Albania's main monetary unit is the lek (104.5 leks
equal U.S. $1; 1996). The central bank and bank of issue is the Bank of
Albania, located in Tirana. Albania is one of the world's few market
economies with no domestic private banks, although there are plans to
privatize two of the three commercial banks.
JTransportation Albania's archaic transportation system is one of the
biggest hurdles to economic growth. The country has 18,000 km (11,000 mi) of
roads, which connect most towns and villages; however, the roads are in
desperate need of repair and expansion. Private cars were banned in Albania
until 1991 when there were only 50,000 registered vehicles (about 15 for
every 1000 people). Most belonged to the Communist Party elite. By 1996 the
country had 31 motor vehicles per 1000 inhabitants, and automobiles had
become the largest single import. Bicycles are still common and a bus system
operates in most of the country. In the more remote highlands, mules and
donkeys are used for transportation. Albania has 674 km (419 mi) of
railroads, much of it built in the 1940s. The rail system connects mostly
industrial and mining centers, is slow and inefficient, and needs a thorough
overhaul.
Albania has two main ports, Durrës and Vlor? Durrës, 35 km (22 mi) from
Tirana, handles 90 percent of Albania's shipping. In 1996 and 1997 Rinas,
the country's only international airport, received a $30 million renovation.
The growth of tourism has led to proposals for a second international
airport in southern Albania.
KCommunications During the Communist era, all publications as well as
television and radio broadcasting were controlled by the state. The state
appointed editors and journalists, censored information tightly, and used
press outlets as tools of propaganda. Because of the extreme repression, no
opposition publications appeared until the closing years of Communist rule.
After 1991 most restrictions were lifted and an independent press began to
function, although publications are often tied to specific political
parties. Television and radio remain under state control, but the censorship
is less severe than during the Communist period. The most important
newspapers include the dailies Rilindja Demokratika, published by the
Democratic Party; Zeri I Popullit, once the major newspaper of the state,
now published by the Socialists; and Republika, published by the Republican
Party. Other major periodicals include the weekly Drita, the monthly
Nentori, and the independent, nonpartisan newspaper Koha Jone.
Albania's telecommunications system is inefficient and thinly spread across
the country. In the mid-1990s state-owned Albanian Telecom began a major
program to upgrade and expand the network. Most households have radios, and
many have televisions. Only a few thousand people, mostly the newly emerging
business class, have access to computers.
VIGOVERNMENT From 1944 to 1991 Albania's government was controlled
completely by the Communist Party, known from 1948 as the Albanian Party of
Labor (APL). The party's preeminence was assured by the 1976 constitution,
which defined the APL as the "sole leading political force of state and
society" and named Marxism-Leninism as the country's official ideology.
Power was effectively consolidated in one man, Enver Hoxha. He was first
secretary, or head, of the party's Politburo (the policy-making body) from
1944 until his death in 1985. Hoxha ruled Albania with an iron fist and
stifled any dissension. The party's control over society and public
institutions, which was near-absolute, was reinforced by the Sigurimi, the
secret police.
After Hoxha's death in 1985, Albania began to emerge from its isolation.
Anti-Communist upheavals swept across Eastern Europe in 1989, and in 1990
Albania legalized opposition parties. In 1991 a new interim constitution was
passed. The constitution created a multiparty parliamentary democracy and
guaranteed freedoms of speech, religion, press, assembly, and organization.
In March 1991 Albania held its first multiparty elections in nearly 50
years; the elections were considered generally free and fair. In 1994 voters
rejected a new constitution that would have concentrated power in the
president.
AExecutive A president serves as Albania's head of state and
commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Elected by the parliament to a
five-year term, this official has the right to dissolve the legislature and
call for general elections. With the approval of the legislature, the
president appoints the prime minister, who is the head of government and cha
ir of the Council of Ministers, or cabinet. The prime minister and Council
of Ministers are in charge of the country's economic, social, and cultural
affairs. The president and prime minister are jointly responsible for
foreign relations and security affairs.
BLegislature Albania's parliament, the People's Assembly, has one house with
155 deputies. The deputies are directly elected to four-year terms by
citizens age 18 and older. The assembly meets in regular session four times
per year and in addition to passing legislation approves the president's
appointment of the prime minister and council of ministers.
CJudiciary In 1992 Albania extensively reorganized its judiciary. The new
court system is headed by the Supreme Court, whose members are elected by
the People's Assembly. Below the Supreme Court are the appeals courts (one
for every district court) and below the appeals courts, the district courts.
Judges in appeals and district courts are appointed by the Higher Judicial
Council, which is headed by Albania's president and includes the chair of
the Supreme Court and the minister of justice. A separate constitutional
court rules on constitutional matters and consists of nine members, five
elected by the assembly and four appointed by the president.
DPolitical Parties The 1991 constitution formally created a multiparty
system, and several new parties emerged before Albania's first multiparty
elections in 1991. The largest is the Albanian Democratic Party, which won
the country's second and third general elections held in 1992 and 1996. The
Democrats advocate a market economy and the encouragement of foreign
assistance and investment. The Democrats won strong support in urban areas
and from young people, but in 1996 they were accused of tampering with
voting procedures. The Socialist Party, which grew out of the Albanian Party
of Labor (APL), officially rejected Marxism-Leninism as its guiding ideology
and now supports gradual market reforms. The Socialists were influential in
rural areas and among older people in the elections. Other parties
represented in the People's Assembly include the Republicans, the Social
Democrats, the Democratic Alliance, and the Unity Party for Human Rights,
which represents the ethnic Greek minority.
ELocal Government Albania is divided into 12 prefectures, with prefects
nominated by the prime minister. Below the prefectures are 36 districts
(rrethe) governed by popularly elected local peoples' councils. The councils
administer most of the economic, social, and cultural affairs of their
districts. The 36 districts are in turn subdivided into 310 communes and 43
municipalities, which carry out local government.
FSocial Services Under the Communists, rudimentary health care was free for
the entire population; however, the health care system suffered from
outdated equipment, inadequate hospitals, and a severe shortage of drugs.
Under the new government, all medical services are still offered free of
charge, although facilities remain below standard.
Under the Communists, mortality rates dropped sharply and a number of
diseases, including tuberculosis and malaria, were brought under control.
Roundworm, a parasite, was still widespread in the early 1990s, particularly
among rural children, and pneumonia and diarrhea remained the major causes
of infant mortality. Incidence of viral hepatitis was also on the rise.
Between 1990 and 1993, deaths in childbirth were cut in half, in large part
because abortion was legalized and pregnant women were prohibited from
working in heavy manual jobs.
Albania's state social insurance system covers all workers free of charge.
Women are entitled to 360 days of maternity leave and receive 80 percent of
their salary while on leave. When workers are on sick leave, they are paid
between 70 and 100 percent of their salary. Men retire between the ages of
55 and 65 years, women between 50 and 60. Pensions generally equal to 70
percent of the average monthly salary are provided for the retired and the
disabled.
GDefense In 1996 the armed forces of Albania included 54,000 people. In 1997
the air force had 6000 members, and the navy had 2500; the number of army
personnel could not be determined due to civil unrest that disrupted
national command of troops early in the year. Military service is required
at the age of 19 and lasts for 12 months.
HInternational Organizations Since 1991 Albania has become a member of
several international organizations including the Organization on Security
and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE); all the bodies of the United Nations (UN)
such as the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO);
and the International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol). Albania also
gained membership to the North Atlantic Cooperation Council of the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and has participated in NATO's
Partnership for Peace program.
VIIHISTORY AEarly History Present-day Albanians probably descended from
Illyrian people who lived in the southern Balkans long before Greeks,
Romans, and Slavs migrated to the region. During the 7th and 6th centuries
BC, the Greeks established several colonies along the Albanian coast,
including Epidamnus (present-day Durrës) and Apollonia (near present-day
Vlor?. By the 3rd century BC the colonies began to decline and eventually
disappeared. As the Greeks left, the small Illyrian groups that predated
them evolved into more complex political units, including federations and
kingdoms. The most important of these kingdoms flourished between the 5th
and 2nd centuries BC.
At the same time, Rome was developing on the Italian peninsula, across the
Adriatic Sea from Illyria. The Romans saw Illyria as a bridgehead for
eastern conquests, and in 229 BC, Rome crossed the Adriatic and attacked. By
168 BC Romans had established effective control over Illyria and renamed it
the province of Illyricum. Rome ruled the region for the next six centuries,
but the Illyrians resisted assimilation and their distinctive culture and
language survived. Nonetheless, Illyrians gained significant influence in
the Roman armed forces, and several Illyrians became Roman emperors,
including Aurelian (AD 270-275), Diocletian (284-305), and Constantine the
Great (306-337). Christianity was felt increasingly in Illyricum by the
middle of the 1st century AD, and in 58, Saint Paul placed an apostle in
charge of Epidamnus. Seats for bishops were later created in Apollonia and
Scodra (present-day Shkodër).
BByzantine Rule In 395 the Roman Empire was split into a western and eastern
empire, and the lands of modern Albania became part of the eastern, or
Byzantine, Empire. Several Illyrians became Byzantine emperors, including
Justinian I (527-565). By the 5th century Christianity had become the
established religion, and Albanian Christians remained under the religious
jurisdiction of the Roman pope, despite being subjects of the Byzantine
Empire. In the 5th century invading Visigoths, Huns, and Ostrogoths
devastated the region, and between the 6th and 8th centuries Slavic peoples
settled in Illyrian territories. The Slavs assimilated many of the Illyrians
in what is today Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Serbia.
However, the southern Illyrian peoples, including those in modern Albania,
resisted assimilation. In 732 Byzantine emperor Leo III detached the
Albanian Church from Rome and placed it under the patriarch of
Constantinople (now Ýstanbul).
From the 8th through the 11th century, Illyria gradually became known as
Albania, from the Albanos group that inhabited central Albania. Scholars
have been unable to determine the origins of the name Shqiperia (Country of
the Eagle), by which present-day Albanians refer to their country. Scholars
generally agree, however, that the name Shqiperia replaced Albania in the
16th century. In the 9th century the Byzantine Empire's power began to
weaken as Bulgarian Slavs, followed by Norman Crusaders, Italian Angevins,
Serbs, and Venetians, invaded the region. After the 10th century a feudal
system developed in which peasant soldiers who had served military lords
became serfs on landed estates. At this time some of the region's provinces
became virtually independent of Constantinople.
When the Christian Church formally split in 1054 into Eastern and Western
churches, southern Albania retained its ties to the Eastern, or Orthodox,
Church in Constantinople while northern Albania reverted to the jurisdiction
of the Roman Catholic Church in Rome. During the Middle Ages (5th century to
15th century) Albanian cities expanded and commerce flourished, particularly
in the Adriatic region. With urban prosperity came the growth of art,
culture, and education. The Albanian language survived, but was not used in
churches, government, or schools; instead, Greek and Latin remained the
official languages of literature and culture.
COttoman Conquest The Serb occupation after 1347 under Stefan Dušan prompted
a mass migration of Albanians to Greece. Byzantine rule disappeared by the
middle of the 14th century, and in 1388 the Ottomans (centered in what is
now Turkey) invaded Albania. By 1430 the Ottomans had conquered Albania, but
during the 1440s George Kastrioti (1403?-1468) organized the country's
feudal lords to fight the Ottomans. Kastrioti, popularly known as
Skenderbeg, successfully resisted Ottoman control for 25 years with military
help from Rome, Naples, and Venice. Albanian resistance collapsed after
Skenderbeg's death, and the Ottomans reoccupied the country by 1506. About
one-fourth of the country's population fled to Italy, Sicily, and the
Dalmatian coast on the Adriatic. Skenderbeg's name has been invoked
throughout Albanian history to inspire national unity and independence.
Today he is revered as Albania's greatest hero.
During four centuries of extensive rule, the Ottomans failed to control all
of Albania. In the highland regions, Ottoman power was weak, and the
Albanians refused to pay taxes or perform military service. The Albanians
staged several rebellions, partly in defense of their Christian faith. At
the end of the 16th century, the Ottomans began a policy of Islamicization
(conversion to Islam) as a way of preventing future unrest. By the end of
the 17th century, about two-thirds of the population had converted to Islam,
many to avoid the heavy tax levied against Christians. The Ottomans also
extended their control through a feudal-military system, under which
military leaders who were loyal to the empire received landed estates.
As Ottoman power declined in the 18th century, the power of some military
lords increased. The Bushati family dominated most of northern Albania
between 1750 and 1831, while Ali Pasa Tepelene ruled southern Albania and
northern Greece from 1788 to 1822. These local rulers created separate
states until they were overthrown by Ottoman sultan Mahmud II. A number of
Albanians also rose to high positions in the Ottoman government in the 18th
and 19th centuries, with more than two dozen becoming grand viziers (prime
ministers).
DAlbanian Independence During the 19th century, many of the conquered
peoples in the Balkans increasingly wanted their own nations. In 1878
Albanian leaders met in the town of Prizren, in Kosovo, where they founded
the League of Prizren (Albanian League) to promote a free, unified Albania
in all Albanian-populated territories. The league also sought to develop
Albanian language, education, and culture, and in 1908 Albanian leaders
adopted a national alphabet based on the Latin script. Between 1910 and 1912
Albanian nationalists waged an armed struggle against the Ottomans, who had
refused to give Albania autonomy (self-rule). The Ottomans were
simultaneously attacked and, in 1912, defeated by Serb, Greek, and Bulgarian
armies in what was later called the First Balkan War (see Balkan Wars).
Albania immediately proclaimed its independence from the Ottoman Empire. At
a conference following the war, Britain, Germany, Russia, Austria, France,
and Italy (collectively known as the Great Powers) agreed to accept Albanian
independence, but because of strong pressures from Albania's neighbors, the
Great Powers gave the Albanian-inhabited region of Kosovo to Serbia and much
of the Çamëria region to Greece. Roughly half the Albanian population was
Greece in 1941, Kosovo and Çamëria were taken from those countries and
joined to Albania, which remained under Italian control until 1943 when
German forces took it after the Italian surrender. The wartime state
disintegrated in November 1944 when the Germans withdrew. Kosovo was then
returned to Serbia (by then part of Yugoslavia) and Çamëria to Greece.
ECommunist Rule During the war, nationalists, monarchists, and Communists in
Albania actively resisted Italian, German, and Albanian fascism. The
Communists eventually prevailed, seizing Albania in November 1944 with help
from Communists in Yugoslavia. The secretary general (later first secretary)
of the Communist Party, Enver Hoxha, was installed as the country's new
leader. Supported by impoverished peasants and some intellectuals, the party
launched a radical reform program that destroyed the power of landlords and
nationalized industry, banks, and commercial properties. In doing so, the
Communists consolidated their rule and created a state-controlled socialist
society. Agriculture was collectivized, following the model established in
the USSR by Joseph Stalin, and by 1967 almost all peasants worked on
collective farms. The Hoxha regime also gained firm control over the
northern highlands and largely eliminated the traditional patriarchal clans
and tribal leadership. Women gained a more prominent place in the new order
as they achieved legal equality with men.
Initially, Albania depended on Yugoslavia for economic and military aid, but
it feared Yugoslav political domination. In 1948, when Stalin expelled
Yugoslavia from the Communist bloc for ideological reasons, Albania backed
the Soviet leader. Hoxha also purged Albania's pro-Yugoslav faction, which
was headed by Koci Xoxe, Hoxha's chief rival. However, when the USSR and
China argued over control of the world Communist movement in the early
1960s, Albania supported China, which Hoxha viewed as more pure in its
Communism. Hohxa was also disillusioned with other Communist allies, whom he
accused of abandoning the socialist revolution and seeking accommodation
with the capitalist West. In 1961 diplomatic ties were broken between
Albania and the USSR. Soviet aid, credits, and technical assistance, which
had allowed Albania to create a modern industrial and agricultural base and
enjoy a better standard of living, were cut off. China took the USSR's place
as Albania's main trading partner and supplier of economic aid.
Until the late 1960s Albania remained virtually isolated from the rest of
the world. Following the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968, Albania
sought to protect itself by renewing ties with neighboring European states
and formally withdrawing from the USSR-led Warsaw Pact. During the 1970s
Albania's relations with China became strained by China's détente
(reconciliation) with the United States. In 1978 China canceled its trade
agreements with, and aid to, Albania. Albania then pursued closer economic
contacts with Europe, but in terms of political and social ties, Albania
remained one of the most isolated countries in the world until the early
1990s.
Under Hoxha's rule, political oppression was severe. In order to eliminate
dissent, all political parties except the Communist Party (formally, the
Albanian Party of Labor, or APL) were banned, and the regime periodically
purged potential opponents from the ruling party. Thousands were dismissed
from their jobs, imprisoned in labor camps, or killed. The state tightly
controlled and censored all public institutions and organizations, including
trade unions, the press, cultural associations, women's and youth
organizations, and all economic enterprises. The Sigurimi, the state
security network, monitored the entire population and eliminated any signs
of dissent. Few foreigners were allowed into Albania, and only the party
elite could travel abroad. In 1967 all religious bodies were banned,
Christian and Muslim church property was confiscated, and the country was
declared the world's first atheist state.
The only signs of opposition appeared within the ruling party itself. In
1981 Prime Minister Mehmet Shehu died under mysterious circumstances; he was
suspected of leading a plot to unseat Hoxha. In 1983 the Sigurimi executed a
number of former party officials. When Hoxha died in April 1985, he was
replaced as first secretary of the party by Ramiz Alia, who tried to
preserve the Communist system while introducing tentative reforms to revive
the declining economy.
FBeginnings of Democracy As Communist rule in Eastern Europe collapsed in
1989, some Albanians demanded more far-reaching reforms. The protesters
included intellectuals, members of the working class, and frustrated young
people. In response to growing unrest and public protests, Alia restored
religious freedom, cut back the power of the Sigurimi, and adopted some
market reforms and economic decentralization. In December 1990 the
government endorsed the creation of independent political parties, thereby
ending the Communist monopoly on power. The judicial system was reformed
with the reestablishment of the ministry of justice and the reduction of
capital offenses. Albanians were also granted the right to foreign travel.
Throughout 1990 thousands of Albanian citizens tried to flee the country
through Western embassies. A multinational relief operation arranged for the
safe evacuation of more than 5000 Albanians, and 20,000 more sailed
illegally to Italy in vessels seized at civilian ports.
Meanwhile, protests in Albania continued, leading to the removal of several
hard-line Communists from the government and the party Politburo. At public
demonstrations in early 1991 several protesters were reportedly killed by
the police. In March a general amnesty for all political prisoners was
declared, and multiparty elections to the People's Assembly took place the
same month. The Communist Party and its allies won 169 of the 250 seats,
while the newly formed Democratic Party won 75. The Communist victory
provoked new public protests in which police killed four people in the city
of Shkodër.
In April 1991 an interim constitution was passed, and the country's name was
changed from the People's Republic of Albania to the Republic of Albania. A
Communist majority in parliament elected Alia to the new post of Albanian
president and economist Fatos Nano became prime minister. Following a
general strike by thousands of workers, the government resigned and a
coalition government was created in June. It included Communists, Democrats,
Republicans, and Social Democrats. Demonstrations continued through the
summer as protesters demanded the arrest of former Communist leaders and
full freedom for the media. In December 1991 the coalition government
collapsed and an interim administration was appointed.
New elections were held in March 1992, giving the Democrats 92 of the 140
seats in the reorganized People's Assembly. The Socialists (the renamed
Communists) won 38 seats, the Social Democrats 7, and the Greek minority
Unity Party for Human Rights 2. The assembly elected the leader of the
Democratic Party, Sali Berisha, president, and Berisha appointed Aleksander
Meksi premier. Under Berisha, several former Communist officials, including
Alia and Nano, were arrested, tried for corruption and abuse of power, and
sentenced to long terms. Many observers believed the trials were unfair and
that Berisha had used them to conveniently get rid of rivals. Both Alia and
Nano were released within a few years of their convictions. In November 1994
the Democrats proposed a new constitution to the voters, who rejected it in
a national referendum. Opponents said the proposal would leave too much
power in the hands of the already powerful president. The president was also
accused of authoritarianism for restricting press freedoms, persecuting
former Communist officials, and controlling the courts. Government
supporters charged that Socialists were trying to discredit the new
democracy.
Relations with the countries of the former Yugoslavia were also tense,
particularly over repression of the Albanian majority in Serbian Kosovo. In
the late 1980s Yugoslavia had ended Kosovo's autonomy, and the Albanian
leadership in Kosovo declared the region independent from Yugoslavia.
Although the international community never recognized Kosovo's independence,
Albania campaigned on Kosovo's behalf and asked the United Nations (UN) to
send monitors to the region. The UN refused. In the mid-1990s Albania feared
that major unrest and a military crackdown in Kosovo could lead to a massive
outflow of refugees, destabilizing the entire Balkan region. Albania also
disagreed with the new FYROM over its treatment of a large Albanian minority
there. Albania's leaders wanted Albanians in the FYROM to have more
representation in the government, and wanted the Albanian language to have
equal status with Macedonian. Nevertheless, the two governments established
diplomatic relations.
General elections were held again in mid-1996, but the victory by President
Sali Berisha's Democratic Party was tainted by accusations of fraud.
Opposition parties eventually boycotted the parliament, which in early 1997
elected Berisha to another five-year term. Also in early 1997, several
fraudulent investment schemes failed, costing thousands of Albanians their
savings. Although the government promised to partially reimburse many
investors, the combination of economic disruption and political scandal
prompted Albanians in several cities first to protest, then to riot. By
March a sporadic rebellion had broken out and several parts of the country
were virtually ungoverned. The southern part of the country, including the
cities of Vlor?and Sarand? was controlled by local militias or armed
citizens defending themselves against looters.
In order to prevent the outbreak of an all-out civil war, President Berisha
appointed a Socialist, Bashkim Fano, to lead an interim government of
national reconciliation. He also agreed to hold early general elections in
June and pledged to resign if his party lost. The new government appealed
for an international force to help restore law and order in the country.
However, the multinational contingent led by an Italian commander that
arrived in April was only mandated to protect the delivery of humanitarian
assistance to the most destitute areas of Albania.
The Socialists swept to power in the June elections, garnering 65 percent of
the vote against the 19 percent drawn by the Democrats. Fatos Nano, who had
regained control of the Socialist Party after his release from prison, was
chosen again as premier. Berisha resigned in July, and the parliament
elected another Socialist leader, Rexhep Mejdani, as president. The
Democrats boycotted parliament for the rest of the year and into 1998. In
August 1997 the government announced that the army and police had restored
order to Vlor? and the multinational force left that same month.
Relations with Yugoslavia worsened in early 1998, when conflict erupted in
Kosovo over the killing of several Serbian police officers by ethnic
Albanians. The killings instigated a brutal crackdown by Serbian
authorities. Albanian officials feared a flood of refugees from Kosovo and
that the conflict would spread into Albania.
Contributed By:
Janusz Bugajski
"Albania," MicrosoftR EncartaR Encyclopedia 99. c 1993-1998 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.
Thomas <Ding...@bbs.org.hk> wrote in message
news:37378814...@bbs.org.hk...
19 th ¥@¬ö?
¶ë±Ú¤H¤T¥@¬ö´N¦í«Y¬ì¯Á¨U°Õ, Ū¦h¨Ç¥v®Ñ°Õ, «Ë¤ù
> Às <lung...@hotmail.com> wrote in message
> news:7h6ubg$3b...@pegasus.hkstar.com...
> ¤é¥»Ä^ºØ, ±zª¾¹D¶ë±Úªº¾ú¥v¶Ü¡H§Aª¾¹D¤g¦Õ¨ä«I²¤¶ë±Ú«á¡Aªü±Ú¬O«ç»ò²M¬~¶ë±Ú¶Ü
?
> 2¾Ô®É¡Aªk¦è´µ¤ä«ù¤Uªºªü±Ú¬O¦p¦ó²M¬~¶ë±Úªº¡A¨¬¨¬200¸U¶ë±Ú¤H¡I
> (43¦~¼w°êÄÒ½Ãxªº³ø§i²×»¡¡A¥L̦b«nªºªü±Ú¥N¨¥¤H¡A¤@¦~¤º´N±O±þ¤F30¸U¶ë±Ú
¤H¡A
> ¦Ó¥B«Ü¦h¤â¬q³s
> ¼w°ê¤H¦Û¤v¬Ý¤F¸¤ßÅåÁx¸õ¡A¤£¦ý±þ«C§§¦~¨k¤l¡A¦Ó¥B¦Ñ¤HÀ¦¨à¤k¤H³£¤£©ñ¹L¡A¤~¨Ï
2
> ¾Ô«á¬ì¯Á¨U¶ë±Ú¥u¥e1/10ªº¤H¤f¡^,§Aª`·N¨ì¥_¬ù©M¦Ñ¬üªºµo¨¥¨S¦³¡A¨M¤f¤£´£10¦~
¤§
> «eªº¨Æ¡A¬°¤°»ò¡H
>
> Hayashi Tachitoku ¼¶¼g©ó¤å³¹ <3736...@ruby.hknet.com>...
> >¥Á¥DÄÒ¡B¥Á«ØÁp¡G
> >
> >§Ú¹ï§A¦an¨DNATO°±¤õ·P¨ì¦n¤õºu¡A ÉA«n´µ©Ô¤Ò¨g¤H·dºØ±Ú²M¬~«Yo©¥o¬J«§?
> >ªi´µ¥§¨È¤º¾Ô¦³ª©§AÚ»¡A¶ëº¸ºû¨È±Úo¬JºØ±Ú²M¬~«Y1992¦~ªi´µ¥§¨È¤º¾Ô®É¶}©l
> >¡A¥ý¬~ªi´µ¥§¨È¦^±Ð®{¡A¦A¦P§Jù¦a¨Èª§¦a½L¡A¨Ì®a¬~¨Èº¸¤Ú¥§¨È¤H¡A øª¾ÀYøª¾
¸ô
> >²bÃѸÜNATO«I²¤«n´µ©Ô¤ÒªGoªº¤H¥¿¤@ª¼¤ò¡C ¦pªG·íªìNATO«Yªi´µ¥§¨È¤º¾Ôªì´Á¥X
> §L¡A
> >ËÝoªº¦^±Ð®{´Nø·|ڶ뺸ºû¨È¤H¤S±þ¤S«Á¡A¨Ì®ao«Y¾Ô¤õ¤¤·N¥~¦ºo¥ª¥|Ó¤¤°ê¤H´N
n
> >¤H°±¤õ¡A³Þ¡IËݦ³±o¨Èº¸¤Ú¥§¨È¤H¦º§r¡A§A¦a³£¦n¦Û¨p©j....... NATO«Y«I²¤ÁÙ¬O
¤Ï
> «I
> >²¤¡H§A¦a¦Û¤vçÜ°Õ~~~
> >
> >--
> >post by Hayashi Tachitoku
> >http://www.angelfire.com/hi/hayashi/
> >http://www.geocities.co.jp/WallStreet/5203
> >¡O¡E¢X¡ï¢X¡O¡¸¢X¡D¡O¡¸¡E¢X¡ï¢X¡O¢X¡D¡O¡E¢X¡ï¡O¡E¢X¡ï¢X¡O¡¸¢X¡D¡O¡E¢X
> >¡y«µø¯SÅv¦h©óì«hªº¤H¡A¥²©w¨âªÌ³£¥¢¥h¡C ¡z
> > ¢w¢w¦ã´Ë»¨«Âº¸
> >¡y¥@¬É¬O²V¶Ã¡B¥Ù¬Þ¥H¤ÎÃø¥H²z¸Ñªº§á¦±¡C¡z
> > ¢w¢w¯Áù´µ
> >¡y¯©¬v¡A¦ý¤£´A¥~¡C¡z
> > ¢w¢w¬f·¨
> >¡y§Ú«ä¡A¬G§Ú¦b¡C¡z
> > ¢w¢w²Ã¥d¨à
> >¡y·R¡Aª½¦Ü¦Û¤v¨ü¶Ë¡z
> > ¢w¢w¼wÄõפk
> >¡y«iªÌ¼««ã¡A©Þ¤b¦V§ó±jªÌ¡C¡z
> > ¢w¢w¾|¨³
> >¡y¦b¬Û«Hªº¥@¬É¸Ì¡A¦³«Ü¦h°°¶B¡F¦bÃhºÃªº¥@¬É¸Ì¡A¤Ï¦Ó¦³«Ü¦h¯u²z¡C¡z
> > ¢w¢wçÄ¿A¿Ù¦N
> >¡y¤T¤À¤Ñµù©w¡A¤C¤À¾a¥´«÷¡A·R«÷¤~·|Ĺ¡C¡z
> > ¢w¢w¥xÆW¤H¿Î»y
> >.P.S. ¤£nª¼¥Ø¬Û«HÅv«Â¡A¥un§A»{¬°¬O¨ü¥Îªº´N¤£»Ý²z·|¥L̬O½Ö
..............
> >*~¡°~*~¡°~*~¡°~*~¡°~*~¡°~*~¡°~*~¡°~*~¡°~*~¡°~*~¡°~*~¡°~*~¡°~*~
> >¦¹post¨Ï¥Î»´ä¯S°I¬F©²¿ì¤½«Ç¦Û°Ê¤Æ©U§£³y¦r[©x¦¡]
> >http://www.info.gov.hk/gccs/index.htm
> >
> >
> >
> >
Thomas
人地塞族早在三世紀係科索沃, 阿爾巴尼亞要
成千年後, 奧丁曼帝國時期先入侵
o吾識英文收聲啦! 世史都無讀乜 Q 都唔識係到叫春!
Hayashi Tachitoku wrote:
> 你想睇全文？OK
>
> Serbia (Serbo-Croatian Srbija), constituent republic of the Federal Republic
> of Yugoslavia (FRY), along with the republic of Montenegro. Serbia is
> bounded on the north by Hungary; on the east by Romania and Bulgaria; on the
> south by the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia; on the southwest by
> Albania; and on the west by Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Croatia.
> Between 1946 and 1991 Serbia was part of a larger federal state known as
> Yugoslavia. This state consisted of five republics in addition to
> Serbia-Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, and Slovenia.
> It broke apart in 1991, when several of the republics declared their
> independence. Serbia can be divided into three regions: the region of
> Vojvodina, a large area containing fertile plains, drained by the Danube,
> Sava, Tisza, and Morava rivers in the north; �madija, a hilly and heavily
> populated area in central Serbia; and the region of Kosovo, a mountainous
> area in the south. The area of Serbia is 88,361 sq km (34,116 sq mi); the
> capital and largest city is Belgrade.
> IIPOPULATION At the time of the 1991 census, Serbia's total population was
> 9,791,475; the 1996 estimate was about 9,979,116. Ethnic Serbs constitute
> approximately two-thirds of the population; Albanians, the largest minority
> group, represent about 17 percent of inhabitants. The rest of the population
> is made up of ethnic Hungarians, Muslims, and those of mixed ethnicity. The
> population of Kosovo is more than 90 percent Albanian, while Vojvodina has a
> large Hungarian minority. Some Croats lived formerly in Vojvodina and
> Belgrade, but most of them fled after hostilities broke out between Croats
> and Serbs in 1991 in response to Croatia's declaration of independence.
> The official language of Serbia is known as Serbian, one of two main forms
> of the Serbo-Croatian language. The other main form is Croatian. The major
> difference between Serbian and Croatian is the alphabet; Serbian uses the
> Cyrillic alphabet, while Croatian is written in Latin letters. Other minorit
> ies speak their own languages, such as Albanian and Hungarian. The dominant
> religion is Serbian Orthodoxy, with smaller numbers of Muslims, Catholics,
> and Protestants. Most Muslims live in the Sand膶k region of southwestern
> Milo塄vi? won 110 seats; the Serbian Radical Party took 81 seats; and the
> Serbian Renewal Movement 45 seats; the remaining seats went to smaller
> groups.
> VHISTORY Serbia was at one time part of the ancient country of Illyria. The
> Romans conquered it in AD 44 and governed it as the province of Moesia. The
> Goths began attacking the area in the 3rd century, but after 395 it was part
> of the Byzantine Empire. During the 7th century, Serbs settled in the area
> west of the Morava River and subsequently gave allegiance to the Byzantines.
> AOttoman Control The Serbs were united by Stefan Nemanja, who established
> the first kingdom of Serbia about 1168. Serbia gradually expanded until,
> under Stefan Du惨n (reigned 1331-1355), it controlled much of what is now
> liberalized the government, and his friend Nikola Pa餜? founder of the
> Radical Party, took control of foreign policy as premier.
> Serbian relations with Austria deteriorated badly during the so-called Pig
> War (1905-1907), a customs dispute, and worsened after 1908 when
> Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1912 and 1913 Serbia took
> an active part in the Balkan Wars, by which it gained both prestige and
> territory in Macedonia; it also received the district of Novi Pazar and
> Kosovo-Metohija. Austria-Hungary then became alarmed by Serbia's growing
> strength in the Balkans.
> CWorld War I Tension was already extremely high on June 28, 1914, when the
> heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, and his
> wife were assassinated by a Serb nationalist, Gavrilo Princip, at Sarajevo,
> Bosnia. The Austro-Hungarian government, holding Serbia responsible,
> declared war and in August invaded Serbia. The Serbs repelled the invaders
> until October 1915, when Bulgaria also invaded. By December the country had
> been occupied by the Central Powers; the Serbian army and government fled to
> the Greek island of Corfu (K廨kira) in 1916.
> Under the leadership of Slobodan Milo塄vi? who became president of Serbia in
> 1989, the Serbian government played an active role in the conflicts in
> Bosnia and Croatia (See Yugoslav Succession, Wars of). During and after the
> wars, there was mounting evidence that Milo塄vi?had been involved throughout
> the war in providing financial and military backing to the nationalist Serb
> campaigns in both republics, and he received international criticism for
> atrocities committed by Serbs against Muslims and Croats. Milo塄vi?and his
> party, the SPS, maintained a strong hold on power in Serbia, imprisoning or
> ousting political rivals and tightly controlling the media, including the
> Belgrade daily newspaper, Borba, which was brought under state control in
> January 1995. Politika, Belgrade's most influential newspaper, had been
> under Milo塄vi?s influence since early 1988.
> The Milo塄vi?government was also criticized for its treatment of ethnic
> minorities in Serbia, especially in the minority-dominated areas of Kosovo,
> Vojvodina, and Sand膶k. In Kosovo, which has been under military occupation
> since 1989, many Albanians have been fired from their jobs, evicted from
> their homes, or subjected to other forms of discrimination. Albanian
> children have frequently been prevented from attending state schools, as
> during the period from September 1990 to September 1994. As a result,
> thousands of Albanians fled Serbia, and many others in Kosovo agitated for
> independence or union with Albania. Serbia's Muslim inhabitants, who are
> concentrated in the Sand膶k region, and ethnic Hungarians, who live
> primarily in Vojvodina, have also been persecuted by Milo塄vi?s regime, and
> thousands have fled the republic.
> In August 1994 Milo塄vi?broke ties with the Serb leadership in Bosnia and
> closed the border between the two republics. In November 1995 he represented
> the Bosnian Serbs in peace talks, and in December he signed the Dayton peace
> accord along with Bosnian president Alija Izetbegovi?and Croatian president
> Franjo Tudjman. In the fall of 1996 Milo塄vi?and Izetbegovi?agreed to
> establish full diplomatic relations between Serbia and Bosnia and
> Herzegovina. Milo塄vi?proclaimed Yugoslavia's respect for Bosnia's
> territorial integrity, and Izetbegovi?agreed to recognize the FRY as the
> successor to the former Yugoslavia.
> In November Milo塄vi?annulled the results of Serbian municipal elections
> after early returns showed the SPS losing to the opposition Zajedno
> (Together) coalition, which includes both Serbian nationalists and liberal
> reformers. The nullification produced widespread protests in Belgrade and
> other cities, with demonstrators marching daily and calling for Milo塄vi?to
> recognize the election results. The protests were the largest ever faced by
> the Serbian president. Bowing to domestic and international pressure,
> Serbia's parliament voted in February 1997 to reinstate the opposition
> victories. However, Zajedno quickly crumbled into bickering factions and
> Milo塄vi?recovered his political strength. Constitutionally barred from
> seeking a third term in September's presidential election, Milo塄vi?sought
> the presidency of the FRY and was elected by the FRY parliament in July.
> Following the election, Milo塄vi?resigned from the Serbian presidency, and
> Dragan Tomic became interim president.
> After three presidential elections failed because of low voter turnout or
> the failure of any candidate to draw at least 50 percent of the vote, Milan
> Milutinovi? an ally of Milo塄vi? was elected president of Serbia in the
> fourth election in December 1997. Milutinovi?defeated an ultranationalist,
> Vojislav Seselj, despite widespread evidence of election fraud.
> Unrest increased among Kosovo's Albanian population in 1997 and early 1998.
> After the killing in February 1998 of Serbian police officers by the Kosovo
> Liberation Army in Pri魩ina, Serbian police and Yugoslav military forces
> began sweeping attacks on ethnic Albanians in the region. The Serbian forces
> had killed more than 150 ethnic Albanians, including women and children, by
> May. The international community threatened Yugoslavia with sanctions if
> Milo塄vi?allowed the bloodshed to continue.
> Shkumbin, and the A鼭s (Vj飉e). Because most of Albania's rivers flow at
> city. Albania's second largest city, Durr褭, lies on the Adriatic coast to
> the west and is by far the country's largest seaport. Other large cities
> include Elbasan in central eastern Albania, Shkod褰 in the northwest, and
> Albania has two main ports, Durr褭 and Vlor? Durr褭, 35 km (22 mi) from
> including Epidamnus (present-day Durr褭) and Apollonia (near present-day
> Vlor?. By the 3rd century BC the colonies began to decline and eventually
> disappeared. As the Greeks left, the small Illyrian groups that predated
> them evolved into more complex political units, including federations and
> kingdoms. The most important of these kingdoms flourished between the 5th
> and 2nd centuries BC.
> At the same time, Rome was developing on the Italian peninsula, across the
> Adriatic Sea from Illyria. The Romans saw Illyria as a bridgehead for
> eastern conquests, and in 229 BC, Rome crossed the Adriatic and attacked. By
> 168 BC Romans had established effective control over Illyria and renamed it
> the province of Illyricum. Rome ruled the region for the next six centuries,
> but the Illyrians resisted assimilation and their distinctive culture and
> language survived. Nonetheless, Illyrians gained significant influence in
> the Roman armed forces, and several Illyrians became Roman emperors,
> including Aurelian (AD 270-275), Diocletian (284-305), and Constantine the
> Great (306-337). Christianity was felt increasingly in Illyricum by the
> middle of the 1st century AD, and in 58, Saint Paul placed an apostle in
> charge of Epidamnus. Seats for bishops were later created in Apollonia and
> Scodra (present-day Shkod褰).
> BByzantine Rule In 395 the Roman Empire was split into a western and eastern
> empire, and the lands of modern Albania became part of the eastern, or
> Byzantine, Empire. Several Illyrians became Byzantine emperors, including
> Justinian I (527-565). By the 5th century Christianity had become the
> established religion, and Albanian Christians remained under the religious
> jurisdiction of the Roman pope, despite being subjects of the Byzantine
> Empire. In the 5th century invading Visigoths, Huns, and Ostrogoths
> devastated the region, and between the 6th and 8th centuries Slavic peoples
> settled in Illyrian territories. The Slavs assimilated many of the Illyrians
> in what is today Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Serbia.
> However, the southern Illyrian peoples, including those in modern Albania,
> resisted assimilation. In 732 Byzantine emperor Leo III detached the
> Albanian Church from Rome and placed it under the patriarch of
> Constantinople (now 酨tanbul).
> From the 8th through the 11th century, Illyria gradually became known as
> Albania, from the Albanos group that inhabited central Albania. Scholars
> have been unable to determine the origins of the name Shqiperia (Country of
> the Eagle), by which present-day Albanians refer to their country. Scholars
> generally agree, however, that the name Shqiperia replaced Albania in the
> 16th century. In the 9th century the Byzantine Empire's power began to
> weaken as Bulgarian Slavs, followed by Norman Crusaders, Italian Angevins,
> Serbs, and Venetians, invaded the region. After the 10th century a feudal
> system developed in which peasant soldiers who had served military lords
> became serfs on landed estates. At this time some of the region's provinces
> became virtually independent of Constantinople.
> When the Christian Church formally split in 1054 into Eastern and Western
> churches, southern Albania retained its ties to the Eastern, or Orthodox,
> Church in Constantinople while northern Albania reverted to the jurisdiction
> of the Roman Catholic Church in Rome. During the Middle Ages (5th century to
> 15th century) Albanian cities expanded and commerce flourished, particularly
> in the Adriatic region. With urban prosperity came the growth of art,
> culture, and education. The Albanian language survived, but was not used in
> churches, government, or schools; instead, Greek and Latin remained the
> official languages of literature and culture.
> COttoman Conquest The Serb occupation after 1347 under Stefan Du惨n prompted
> of the ぺm褰ia region to Greece. Roughly half the Albanian population was
> Greece in 1941, Kosovo and ぺm褰ia were taken from those countries and
> joined to Albania, which remained under Italian control until 1943 when
> German forces took it after the Italian surrender. The wartime state
> disintegrated in November 1944 when the Germans withdrew. Kosovo was then
> returned to Serbia (by then part of Yugoslavia) and ぺm褰ia to Greece.
> Albania's relations with China became strained by China's d彋ente
> of Shkod褰.
> 19 th 世紀?
>
> 塞族人三世紀就住係科索沃啦, 讀多些史書啦, 屎片
>
> > 龍 <lung...@hotmail.com> wrote in message
> > news:7h6ubg$3b...@pegasus.hkstar.com...
> > 日本孽種, 您知道塞族的歷史嗎？你知道土耳其侵略塞族後，阿族是怎麼清洗塞族嗎
> ?
> > 2戰時，法西斯支持下的阿族是如何清洗塞族的，足足200萬塞族人！
> > (43年德國黨衛軍的報告終說，他們在南的阿族代言人，一年內就屠殺了30萬塞族
> 人，
> > 而且很多手段連
> > 德國人自己看了葉心驚膽跳，不但殺青壯年男子，而且老人嬰兒女人都不放過，才使
> 2
> > 戰後科索沃塞族只占1/10的人口）,你注意到北約和老美的發言沒有，決口不提10年
> 之
> > 前的事，為什麼？
> >
> > Hayashi Tachitoku 撰寫於文章 <3736...@ruby.hknet.com>...
> > >民主黨、民建聯：
> > >
> > >我對你地要求NATO停火感到好火滾， 乜南斯拉夫狂人搞種族清洗係o岩o既咩?
> > >波斯尼亞內戰有版你睇，塞爾維亞族o既種族清洗係1992年波斯尼亞內戰時開始
> > >，先洗波斯尼亞回教徒，再同克羅地亞爭地盤，依家洗亞爾巴尼亞人， 唔知頭唔知
> 路
> > >淨識話NATO侵略南斯拉夫果o的人正一盲毛。 如果當初NATO係波斯尼亞內戰初期出
> > 兵，
> > >咁o的回教徒就唔會俾塞爾維亞人又殺又姦，依家o係戰火中意外死o左四個中國人就
> 要
> > >人停火，喂！咁有得亞爾巴尼亞人死呀，你地都好自私姐....... NATO係侵略還是
> 反
> > 侵
> > >略？你地自己諗啦~~~
> > >
> > >--
> > >post by Hayashi Tachitoku
> > >http://www.angelfire.com/hi/hayashi/
> > >http://www.geocities.co.jp/WallStreet/5203
> > >﹒•°∴°﹒☆°．﹒☆•°∴°﹒°．﹒•°∴﹒•°∴°﹒☆°．﹒•°
> > >『重視特權多於原則的人，必定兩者都失去。 』
> > > ──艾森豪威爾
> > >『世界是混亂、矛盾以及難以理解的扭曲。』
> > > ──索羅斯
> > >『祟洋，但不媚外。』
> > > ──柏楊
> > >『我思，故我在。』
> > > ──笛卡兒
> > >『愛，直至自己受傷』
> > > ──德蘭修女
> > >『勇者憤怒，拔刃向更強者。』
> > > ──魯迅
> > >『在相信的世界裡，有很多偽詐；在懷疑的世界裡，反而有很多真理。』
> > > ──褔澤諭吉
> > >『三分天註定，七分靠打拼，愛拼才會贏。』
> > > ──台灣人諺語
> > >.P.S. 不要盲目相信權威，只要你認為是受用的就不需理會他們是誰
> ..............
> > >*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~
> > >此post使用香港特衰政府辦公室自動化垃圾造字[官式]
> > >http://www.info.gov.hk/gccs/index.htm
> > >
> > >
> > >
> > >
Hayashi Tachitoku
現在世界各國o既國界好多都係二戰後畫定o既，同三世紀o既國界有乜關係？
以你o既Logic來講，土耳其人又係唔係有中國西部o既主權呢？
============================================
Thomas
都住係日本好耐羅
我中國人民也要大量移民居住日本 你都無權迫我走!
死日本狗. 哈哈哈
Hayashi Tachitoku
Thomas <Tho...@bbs.org.hk> wrote in message
news:37383D3C...@bbs.org.hk...
好啦, 死日本狗, 用你 logic 來講, 你日本主人三世紀
都住係日本好耐羅
我中國人民也要大量移民居住日本 你都無權迫我走!
死日本狗. 哈哈哈
T-BONE
Hayashi Tachitoku 撰寫於文章 <3738...@ruby.hknet.com>...
>我真係好欣賞您o既logic，poly u o既天子門生Thomas先生..............
>
>Thomas <Tho...@bbs.org.hk> wrote in message
>news:37383D3C...@bbs.org.hk...
>好啦, 死日本狗, 用你 logic 來講, 你日本主人三世紀
>都住係日本好耐羅
>
>我中國人民也要大量移民居住日本 你都無權迫我走!
>
>死日本狗. 哈哈哈
>
>Hayashi Tachitoku wrote:
>
Thomas
你? 只不過一條日本狗, o吾夠人講, 收皮啦! 哈哈哈
Hayashi Tachitoku wrote:
> 我真係好欣賞您o既logic，poly u o既天子門生Thomas先生..............
>
> Thomas <Tho...@bbs.org.hk> wrote in message
> news:37383D3C...@bbs.org.hk...
> 好啦, 死日本狗, 用你 logic 來講, 你日本主人三世紀
> 都住係日本好耐羅
>
> 我中國人民也要大量移民居住日本 你都無權迫我走!
>
> 死日本狗. 哈哈哈
>
> Hayashi Tachitoku wrote:
>
廢人
T-BONE <YOU@ME> wrote in article <3739...@news.dj.net.tw>...
> 想不到共青黨與共產黨這兩個共徒在此區一搭一唱搞分化
> Hayashi Tachitoku 撰寫於文章 <3738...@ruby.hknet.com>...
> >我真係好欣賞您o既logic，poly u o既天子門生Thomas先生..............
> >
> >Thomas <Tho...@bbs.org.hk> wrote in message
> >news:37383D3C...@bbs.org.hk...
> >好啦, 死日本狗, 用你 logic 來講, 你日本主人三世紀
> >都住係日本好耐羅
> >
> >我中國人民也要大量移民居住日本 你都無權迫我走!
> >
> >死日本狗. 哈哈哈
> >
> >Hayashi Tachitoku wrote:
> >
T-BONE
Thomas 撰寫於文章 <373843F1...@bbs.org.hk>...
>我當然是天子門生
>
>你? 只不過一條日本狗, o吾夠人講, 收皮啦! 哈哈哈
>
>Hayashi Tachitoku wrote:
>
>>
>> Thomas <Tho...@bbs.org.hk> wrote in message
>> news:37383D3C...@bbs.org.hk...
>> 好啦, 死日本狗, 用你 logic 來講, 你日本主人三世紀
>> 都住係日本好耐羅
>>
>> 我中國人民也要大量移民居住日本 你都無權迫我走!
>>
>> 死日本狗. 哈哈哈
>>
>> Hayashi Tachitoku wrote:
>>
T-BONE
廢人 <123@123> 撰寫於文章 <01be9bc2$d946a940$3aa943ca@----->...
>共青團呀, 共青黨? 新字頭?
>
>T-BONE <YOU@ME> wrote in article <3739...@news.dj.net.tw>...
>> 想不到共青黨與共產黨這兩個共徒在此區一搭一唱搞分化
>> Hayashi Tachitoku 撰寫於文章 <3738...@ruby.hknet.com>...
>> >
>> >Thomas <Tho...@bbs.org.hk> wrote in message
>> >news:37383D3C...@bbs.org.hk...
>> >好啦, 死日本狗, 用你 logic 來講, 你日本主人三世紀
>> >都住係日本好耐羅
>> >
>> >我中國人民也要大量移民居住日本 你都無權迫我走!
>> >
>> >死日本狗. 哈哈哈
>> >
>> >Hayashi Tachitoku wrote:
>> >
廢人
T-BONE <YOU@ME> wrote in article <3739...@news.dj.net.tw>...
> 哈哈...新團體,歡迎加入!
> 廢人 <123@123> 撰寫於文章 <01be9bc2$d946a940$3aa943ca@----->...
> >共青團呀, 共青黨? 新字頭?
> >
> >T-BONE <YOU@ME> wrote in article <3739...@news.dj.net.tw>...
> >> 想不到共青黨與共產黨這兩個共徒在此區一搭一唱搞分化
> >> Hayashi Tachitoku 撰寫於文章 <3738...@ruby.hknet.com>...
> >> >我真係好欣賞您o既logic，poly u o既天子門生Thomas先生..............
> >> >
> >> >Thomas <Tho...@bbs.org.hk> wrote in message
> >> >news:37383D3C...@bbs.org.hk...
> >> >好啦, 死日本狗, 用你 logic 來講, 你日本主人三世紀
> >> >都住係日本好耐羅
> >> >
> >> >我中國人民也要大量移民居住日本 你都無權迫我走!
> >> >
> >> >死日本狗. 哈哈哈
> >> >
> >> >Hayashi Tachitoku wrote:
> >> >
X-PART
天生獃子屁門生!>news:373843F1...@bbs.org.hk...
>我當然是天子門生
>
>你? 只不過一條日本狗, o吾夠人講, 收皮啦! 哈哈哈
>
>Hayashi Tachitoku wrote:
>
>>
>> Thomas <Tho...@bbs.org.hk> wrote in message
>> news:37383D3C...@bbs.org.hk...
>> 好啦, 死日本狗, 用你 logic 來講, 你日本主人三世紀
>> 都住係日本好耐羅
>>
>> 我中國人民也要大量移民居住日本 你都無權迫我走!
>>
>> 死日本狗. 哈哈哈
>>
>> Hayashi Tachitoku wrote:
>>
反美_香港_亮 (Anti-USA_HK_Leung)
冇道理講就用啲旁門左道...news:7h86ba$qs2$1...@imsp009a.netvigator.com...
> 你想睇全文？OK
>
> Serbia (Serbo-Croatian Srbija), constituent republic of the Federal
Republic
> of Yugoslavia (FRY), along with the republic of Montenegro. Serbia is
> bounded on the north by Hungary; on the east by Romania and Bulgaria; on
the
> south by the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia; on the southwest by
> Albania; and on the west by Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and
Croatia.
> Between 1946 and 1991 Serbia was part of a larger federal state known as
> Yugoslavia. This state consisted of five republics in addition to
> Serbia-Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, and
Slovenia.
> It broke apart in 1991, when several of the republics declared their
> independence. Serbia can be divided into three regions: the region of
> Vojvodina, a large area containing fertile plains, drained by the Danube,
> populated area in central Serbia; and the region of Kosovo, a mountainous
> area in the south. The area of Serbia is 88,361 sq km (34,116 sq mi); the
> capital and largest city is Belgrade.
> IIPOPULATION At the time of the 1991 census, Serbia's total population was
> 9,791,475; the 1996 estimate was about 9,979,116. Ethnic Serbs constitute
> approximately two-thirds of the population; Albanians, the largest
minority
> group, represent about 17 percent of inhabitants. The rest of the
population
> is made up of ethnic Hungarians, Muslims, and those of mixed ethnicity.
The
> population of Kosovo is more than 90 percent Albanian, while Vojvodina has
a
> large Hungarian minority. Some Croats lived formerly in Vojvodina and
> Belgrade, but most of them fled after hostilities broke out between Croats
> and Serbs in 1991 in response to Croatia's declaration of independence.
> The official language of Serbia is known as Serbian, one of two main forms
> of the Serbo-Croatian language. The other main form is Croatian. The major
> difference between Serbian and Croatian is the alphabet; Serbian uses the
> Cyrillic alphabet, while Croatian is written in Latin letters. Other
minorit
> ies speak their own languages, such as Albanian and Hungarian. The
dominant
> religion is Serbian Orthodoxy, with smaller numbers of Muslims, Catholics,
> Serbian Renewal Movement 45 seats; the remaining seats went to smaller
> groups.
> VHISTORY Serbia was at one time part of the ancient country of Illyria.
The
> Romans conquered it in AD 44 and governed it as the province of Moesia.
The
> Goths began attacking the area in the 3rd century, but after 395 it was
part
> of the Byzantine Empire. During the 7th century, Serbs settled in the area
> west of the Morava River and subsequently gave allegiance to the
Byzantines.
> AOttoman Control The Serbs were united by Stefan Nemanja, who established
> the first kingdom of Serbia about 1168. Serbia gradually expanded until,
> Radical Party, took control of foreign policy as premier.
> Serbian relations with Austria deteriorated badly during the so-called Pig
> War (1905-1907), a customs dispute, and worsened after 1908 when
> Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1912 and 1913 Serbia
took
> an active part in the Balkan Wars, by which it gained both prestige and
> territory in Macedonia; it also received the district of Novi Pazar and
> Kosovo-Metohija. Austria-Hungary then became alarmed by Serbia's growing
> strength in the Balkans.
> CWorld War I Tension was already extremely high on June 28, 1914, when the
> heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Francis Ferdinand, and his
> wife were assassinated by a Serb nationalist, Gavrilo Princip, at
Sarajevo,
> Bosnia. The Austro-Hungarian government, holding Serbia responsible,
> declared war and in August invaded Serbia. The Serbs repelled the invaders
> until October 1915, when Bulgaria also invaded. By December the country
had
> been occupied by the Central Powers; the Serbian army and government fled
to
in
> 1989, the Serbian government played an active role in the conflicts in
> Bosnia and Croatia (See Yugoslav Succession, Wars of). During and after
the
throughout
> the war in providing financial and military backing to the nationalist
Serb
> campaigns in both republics, and he received international criticism for
> party, the SPS, maintained a strong hold on power in Serbia, imprisoning
or
> ousting political rivals and tightly controlling the media, including the
> Belgrade daily newspaper, Borba, which was brought under state control in
> January 1995. Politika, Belgrade's most influential newspaper, had been
> The Milo塄vi?government was also criticized for its treatment of ethnic
> minorities in Serbia, especially in the minority-dominated areas of
Kosovo,
occupation
> since 1989, many Albanians have been fired from their jobs, evicted from
> their homes, or subjected to other forms of discrimination. Albanian
> children have frequently been prevented from attending state schools, as
> during the period from September 1990 to September 1994. As a result,
> thousands of Albanians fled Serbia, and many others in Kosovo agitated for
> independence or union with Albania. Serbia's Muslim inhabitants, who are
> primarily in Vojvodina, have also been persecuted by Milo塄vi?s regime,
and
> thousands have fled the republic.
> closed the border between the two republics. In November 1995 he
represented
> the Bosnian Serbs in peace talks, and in December he signed the Dayton
peace
> accord along with Bosnian president Alija Izetbegovi?and Croatian
president
> establish full diplomatic relations between Serbia and Bosnia and
> territorial integrity, and Izetbegovi?agreed to recognize the FRY as the
> successor to the former Yugoslavia.
> after early returns showed the SPS losing to the opposition Zajedno
> (Together) coalition, which includes both Serbian nationalists and liberal
> reformers. The nullification produced widespread protests in Belgrade and
> other cities, with demonstrators marching daily and calling for
> recognize the election results. The protests were the largest ever faced
by
> the Serbian president. Bowing to domestic and international pressure,
> Serbia's parliament voted in February 1997 to reinstate the opposition
> victories. However, Zajedno quickly crumbled into bickering factions and
> seeking a third term in September's presidential election, Milo塄vi?sought
> the presidency of the FRY and was elected by the FRY parliament in July.
> Dragan Tomic became interim president.
> After three presidential elections failed because of low voter turnout or
> the failure of any candidate to draw at least 50 percent of the vote,
Milan
> fourth election in December 1997. Milutinovi?defeated an ultranationalist,
> Vojislav Seselj, despite widespread evidence of election fraud.
> Unrest increased among Kosovo's Albanian population in 1997 and early
1998.
> After the killing in February 1998 of Serbian police officers by the
Kosovo
> began sweeping attacks on ethnic Albanians in the region. The Serbian
forces
> had killed more than 150 ethnic Albanians, including women and children,
by
> May. The international community threatened Yugoslavia with sanctions if
> the west and is by far the country's largest seaport. Other large cities
> Albania has two main ports, Durr褭 and Vlor? Durr褭, 35 km (22 mi) from
> including Epidamnus (present-day Durr褭) and Apollonia (near present-day
> Vlor?. By the 3rd century BC the colonies began to decline and eventually
> disappeared. As the Greeks left, the small Illyrian groups that predated
> them evolved into more complex political units, including federations and
> kingdoms. The most important of these kingdoms flourished between the 5th
> and 2nd centuries BC.
> At the same time, Rome was developing on the Italian peninsula, across the
> Adriatic Sea from Illyria. The Romans saw Illyria as a bridgehead for
> eastern conquests, and in 229 BC, Rome crossed the Adriatic and attacked.
By
> 168 BC Romans had established effective control over Illyria and renamed
it
> the province of Illyricum. Rome ruled the region for the next six
centuries,
> but the Illyrians resisted assimilation and their distinctive culture and
> language survived. Nonetheless, Illyrians gained significant influence in
> the Roman armed forces, and several Illyrians became Roman emperors,
> including Aurelian (AD 270-275), Diocletian (284-305), and Constantine the
> Great (306-337). Christianity was felt increasingly in Illyricum by the
> middle of the 1st century AD, and in 58, Saint Paul placed an apostle in
> charge of Epidamnus. Seats for bishops were later created in Apollonia and
> Scodra (present-day Shkod褰).
> BByzantine Rule In 395 the Roman Empire was split into a western and
eastern
> empire, and the lands of modern Albania became part of the eastern, or
> Byzantine, Empire. Several Illyrians became Byzantine emperors, including
> Justinian I (527-565). By the 5th century Christianity had become the
> established religion, and Albanian Christians remained under the religious
> jurisdiction of the Roman pope, despite being subjects of the Byzantine
> Empire. In the 5th century invading Visigoths, Huns, and Ostrogoths
> devastated the region, and between the 6th and 8th centuries Slavic
peoples
> settled in Illyrian territories. The Slavs assimilated many of the
Illyrians
> in what is today Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Serbia.
> However, the southern Illyrian peoples, including those in modern Albania,
> resisted assimilation. In 732 Byzantine emperor Leo III detached the
> Albanian Church from Rome and placed it under the patriarch of
> Constantinople (now 酨tanbul).
> COttoman Conquest The Serb occupation after 1347 under Stefan Du惨n
> of the ぺm褰ia region to Greece. Roughly half the Albanian population was
> Greece in 1941, Kosovo and ぺm褰ia were taken from those countries and
> joined to Albania, which remained under Italian control until 1943 when
> German forces took it after the Italian surrender. The wartime state
> disintegrated in November 1944 when the Germans withdrew. Kosovo was then
> returned to Serbia (by then part of Yugoslavia) and ぺm褰ia to Greece.
> Albania's relations with China became strained by China's d彋ente
> of Shkod褰.
> 19 th 世紀?
>
> 塞族人三世紀就住係科索沃啦, 讀多些史書啦, 屎片
>
>
> > 龍 <lung...@hotmail.com> wrote in message
> > news:7h6ubg$3b...@pegasus.hkstar.com...
> > 日本孽種, 您知道塞族的歷史嗎？你知道土耳其侵略塞族後，阿族是怎麼清洗塞族
嗎
> ?
> > 2戰時，法西斯支持下的阿族是如何清洗塞族的，足足200萬塞族人！
> > (43年德國黨衛軍的報告終說，他們在南的阿族代言人，一年內就屠殺了30萬塞族
> 人，
> > 而且很多手段連
> > 德國人自己看了葉心驚膽跳，不但殺青壯年男子，而且老人嬰兒女人都不放過，才
使
> 2
> > 戰後科索沃塞族只占1/10的人口）,你注意到北約和老美的發言沒有，決口不提10
年
> 之
> > 前的事，為什麼？
> >
> > Hayashi Tachitoku 撰寫於文章 <3736...@ruby.hknet.com>...
> > >民主黨、民建聯：
> > >
> > >我對你地要求NATO停火感到好火滾， 乜南斯拉夫狂人搞種族清洗係o岩o既咩?
> > >波斯尼亞內戰有版你睇，塞爾維亞族o既種族清洗係1992年波斯尼亞內戰時開始
> > >，先洗波斯尼亞回教徒，再同克羅地亞爭地盤，依家洗亞爾巴尼亞人， 唔知頭唔
知
> 路
> > >淨識話NATO侵略南斯拉夫果o的人正一盲毛。 如果當初NATO係波斯尼亞內戰初期
出
> > 兵，
> > >咁o的回教徒就唔會俾塞爾維亞人又殺又姦，依家o係戰火中意外死o左四個中國人
就
> 要
> > >人停火，喂！咁有得亞爾巴尼亞人死呀，你地都好自私姐....... NATO係侵略還
是
> 反
> > 侵
> > >略？你地自己諗啦~~~
> > >
> > >--
> > >post by Hayashi Tachitoku
> > >http://www.angelfire.com/hi/hayashi/
> > >http://www.geocities.co.jp/WallStreet/5203
> > >﹒•°∴°﹒☆°．﹒☆•°∴°﹒°．﹒•°∴﹒•°∴°﹒☆°．﹒•°
> > >『重視特權多於原則的人，必定兩者都失去。 』
> > > ──艾森豪威爾
> > >『世界是混亂、矛盾以及難以理解的扭曲。』
> > > ──索羅斯
> > >『祟洋，但不媚外。』
> > > ──柏楊
> > >『我思，故我在。』
> > > ──笛卡兒
> > >『愛，直至自己受傷』
> > > ──德蘭修女
> > >『勇者憤怒，拔刃向更強者。』
> > > ──魯迅
> > >『在相信的世界裡，有很多偽詐；在懷疑的世界裡，反而有很多真理。』
> > > ──褔澤諭吉
> > >『三分天註定，七分靠打拼，愛拼才會贏。』
> > > ──台灣人諺語
> > >.P.S. 不要盲目相信權威，只要你認為是受用的就不需理會他們是誰
> ..............
> > >*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~※~*~
> > >此post使用香港特衰政府辦公室自動化垃圾造字[官式]
> > >http://www.info.gov.hk/gccs/index.htm
> > >
> > >
> > >
> > >
>
>
>
Hayashi Tachitoku
明白嗎........哈哈
Thomas <Tho...@bbs.org.hk> wrote in message
news:373843F1...@bbs.org.hk...
我當然是天子門生
你? 只不過一條日本狗, o吾夠人講, 收皮啦! 哈哈哈
Hayashi Tachitoku wrote:
> 我真係好欣賞您o既logic，poly u o既天子門生Thomas先生..............
>
> Thomas <Tho...@bbs.org.hk> wrote in message
> news:37383D3C...@bbs.org.hk...
> 好啦, 死日本狗, 用你 logic 來講, 你日本主人三世紀
> 都住係日本好耐羅
>
> 我中國人民也要大量移民居住日本 你都無權迫我走!
>
> 死日本狗. 哈哈哈
>
> Hayashi Tachitoku wrote:
>