Frequently Asked Questions and Primer for comp.os.linux.advocacy

                                   Edition II

                                 April 13, 2002

                 +--------------------------------------------+
                 | The price of liberty is eternal vigilance. |
                 |             -Thomas Jefferson              |
                 +--------------------------------------------+

Contents

     * 1 Introduction and welcome to comp.os.linux.advocacy
          * 1.1 Contributing to this FAQ and Primer
     * 2 The Charter of comp.os.linux.advocacy
     * 3 COLA
          * 3.1 On Topic Subjects
          * 3.2 Kinds of People Who Read and Post to COLA
          * 3.3 Conduct Acceptable in COLA
     * 4 Linux
          * 4.1 Intrusive Suggestions for Changing Linux
          * 4.2 Wanting to Spread Linux to Everyone
          * 4.3 Don't Dump That Command Line
          * 4.4 Linux Success not Prevented by Microsoft
     * 5 What is Linux?
          * 5.1 What is a kernel?
          * 5.2 The Linux way of software development
          * 5.3 How good is Linux?
     * 6 Is Linux Compatible with other operating system?
          * 6.1 Linux leave users wanting less.
          * 6.2 Linux Provides Modern Operating System Features
          * 6.3 How much does Linux cost and where can it be obtained?
          * 6.4 What software is they for Linux?
     * 7 Who uses Linux
          * 7.1 Businesses who use Linux
          * 7.2 These Governments and their Agencies use Linux
          * 7.3 Schools, Colleges and Universities
          * 7.4 Sources of information
          * 7.5 Charitable Organizations
          * 7.6 Why Amateur Radio Operators use Linux
          * 7.7 Types of new Linux users drawn to Linux
     * 8 Linux Documentation and Resources
          * 8.1 Internal
          * 8.2 man and info
          * 8.3 Developer Provided Documentation
          * 8.4 Linux Documentation Project
          * 8.5 Online Magazine Articles
          * 8.6 Mailing Lists
          * 8.7 Newsgroups
          * 8.8 The Web
          * 8.9 Internet Relay Chat
          * 8.10 File Transfer Protocol
          * 8.11 Online Radio Shows
          * 8.12 The Source
     * 9 Anti-Linux Propagandists and Trolls
          * 9.1 Disinformation
          * 9.2 FUD
          * 9.3 A Common FUD of the Anti-Linux Propagandists
          * 9.4 The Effect of the Trespassers
          * 9.5 Where the Disrupters Should Go
     * 10 Trespasser Disinformation Tactics
     * 11 Methods to Counter Disinformation
          * 11.1 Use of Trespasser Disinformation Tactics List
          * 11.2 Refute Disinformation Where Possible
          * 11.3 Stay On Topic
          * 11.4 Post an Advocacy Article
          * 11.5 What Have they Contributed to Linux
          * 11.6 Use Your Newsreader Scoring and Killfile Features
     * 12 Contributing to the Linux Community
          * 12.1 How To Contribute
          * 12.2 There are Many Reasons to Contribute
          * 12.3 It is Not Crazy to Contribute
     * 13 Linux's BSD cousins.
     * 14 Credits
     * 15 Pesky Details

              1 Introduction and welcome to comp.os.linux.advocacy

   This is the FAQ for the comp.os.linux.advocacy newsgroup and a primer for
   new readers of this newsgroup, providing information about this newsgroup
   and the Linux community as a whole. This document is posted to
   comp.os.linux.advocacy weekly.

   If you are new to Linux and/or comp.os.linux.advocacy, welcome. We hope
   that you will will enjoy your time in comp.os.linux.advocacy and find it
   educational. We also hope that you will find Linux as useful for you as we
   find it to be and that in the ripeness of time that you will become a
   contributing member of the Linux community.

   This FAQ and Primer was produced and is being maintained entirely with the
   use of software running on the Linux operating system.

   The description that your news server delivers to you for
   comp.os.linux.advocacy, or COLA for short, is "Benefits of Linux compared
   to other operating systems". That description is derived from the charter
   of COLA. Sometimes advocacy groups are viewed as a place where the
   bickering undesirables of other newsgroups are directed, in order to
   remove a disruption from another group on the same general subject. That
   is incorrect for COLA.

   COLA is like a meeting hall for Linux advocacy. A place where those who
   advocate the use of Linux can meet and discuss all things Linux. In
   addition it is a place were individuals interested in Linux can come to
   develop contacts and gain an understanding of the Linux community.

   COLA is also a place where those curious about Linux can come, to learn
   about its capabilities from those who are experienced with the use,
   administration, and development of Linux.

   By using Linux as a user or sysadmin you are a member of the Linux
   community. The Linux community is world-wide and interconnected by the
   internet and other networks gated to the internet. Linux is designed and
   written by its users to meet the needs of its users.

1.1 Contributing to this FAQ and Primer

   All those who advocate the use of Linux are invited to submit material and
   suggestions to be considered for future versions of this document.
   Submissions should be sent by email to m...@mindspring.com. You may also
   post your submissions in COLA; however, in that case you should still
   email your submission as well, so that the submission will not be missed
   as can happen if it were posted in COLA only.

   Submissions offered by those who may deemed to be hostile to Linux,
   including but not limited to anti-Linux propagandists, will not be
   accepted.

                    2 The Charter of comp.os.linux.advocacy

   The charter of comp.os.linux.advocacy is:

     For discussion of the benefits of Linux compared to other operating
     systems.

   That single sentence is the one and only charter of the newsgroup
   comp.os.linux.advocacy. The newsgroup's charter is for the newsgroup as a
   place for supporters of Linux to gather to discuss Linux, for the
   betterment of the Linux community and the promotion and development of
   Linux. It supports this as a place for those who would like to learn more
   about Linux to come to learn from those who know Linux. It does not call
   for it to be a place where the anti-Linux propagandists to gather in order
   to discredit Linux.

   You may have heard of another charter sometimes called by some the
   "original charter," that opens the newsgroup to the abuses that are
   inflicted on Linux by those who oppose Linux. That other charter never
   existed, it was a proposed charter for another newsgroup that never was
   created that would also have been called comp.os.linux.advocacy.

   On 14 Feb 1994, Danny Gould dgo...@helix.nih.gov posted
   comp.os.linux.advocacy-R...@uunet.uu.net a Request for Discussion entitled
   "Request for Discussion (RFD) on comp.os.linux.advocacy" to the
   news.groups newsgroup. That RFD was cross posted to the appropriate
   newsgroups and a number of other inappropriate newsgroups as well. It
   included the following proposed charter:

     The proposed group will provide a forum for the discussion of Linux. In
     addition, it will allow comp.os.linux.misc to deal with Linux-specific
     issues. Discussion will include (but not be limited to) the discussion
     of the pros and cons of Linux and applications for Linux, and the
     comparison of Linux with other operating systems and environments such
     as Microsoft DOS and Windows, SCO UNIX, Coherent, NeXTstep, Macintosh
     System, etc. It will be an unmoderated forum.

   The call for votes on the proposal was not posted, the issue died without
   a vote.

   On 4 Oct 1994, Dave Sill d...@ornl.gov posted 37mn57$...@rodan.UU.NET a
   Request for Discussion entitled "REQUEST FOR DISCUSSION (RFD)
   comp.os.linux reorganization." Thus far comp.os.linux.advocacy was not yet
   proposed. Note that unlike Danny, Dave posted the Request for Discussions
   to appropriate newsgroups only, that is a hallmark of a serious effort.

   On 14 Oct 1994, Dave Sill d...@de5.ornl.gov posted 37mn57$...@rodan.UU.NET
   a revised version of this Request for Discussion, this revised posting
   called for the creation of comp.os.linux.advocacy among other
   comp.os.linux.* groups. Dave proposed this charter for
   comp.os.linux.advocacy:

     For discussion of the benefits of Linux compared to other operating
     systems.

   The Call for Votes went out in the required form, and on 13 Dec 1994
   posted the results ikl...@amdahl.com with greater than 8 to 1 in favor of
   the creation of comp.os.linux.advocacy (our COLA) with Dave's proposed
   charter. On that date, that charter became effective and that other
   charter that was proposed for the other comp.os.linux.advocacy that never
   was created, never became anything that affects this
   comp.os.linux.advocacy.

   Those who oppose Linux and have invaded comp.os.linux.advocacy in order to
   try to subvert the purpose of this newsgroup will continue as they have to
   insult the intelligence of the Linux advocates by citing that other
   proposed charter of that other newsgroup that never came into existence.
   They also have continued to quote from the introductory paragraph of the
   Danny's Request for Discussion as though that were a part of any actual or
   even a part of the failed, proposed charter. Perhaps they feel that the
   introductory section provides them with a greater impact.

   When someone posts citations from that failed Request for Discussion in
   order to make it appear that the anti-Linux propagandists are sanctioned
   to be posting in COLA, as was done by an anti-Linux propagandist on
   January 13, 2002 in article pMr08.457$Wf1.316...@ruti.visi.com, then once
   again by another anti-Linux propagandist on February 13, 2002 in article
   d6761fb5.0202131955.6c3b9...@posting.google.com they are not only using
   disinformation they are also insulting the intelligence of everyone who is
   a reader COLA.

                                     3 COLA

3.1 On Topic Subjects

   On-topic is anything anything regarding Linux that is of interest to a
   person who advocates the use of Linux, or requests for information about
   Linux by a person who would like to learn about it. COLA is also a great
   place to share your Linux success stories.

   COLA is not a place to advocate the use of other operating systems, there
   are other newsgroups for advocating them. COLA is not a place to vent real
   or imagined complaints regarding Linux. There are other newsgroups created
   for that purpose.

   COLA is not a place to place advertisements or other promotions for
   financial gain or for promoting anything other than the use of Linux
   operating system and growth of the Linux community.

3.2 Kinds of People Who Read and Post to COLA

   While reading articles in COLA you will often see references to various
   types of people. To someone new to COLA, these classification may be
   confusing.

  3.2.1 Linux Advocates

   A Linux advocate is a person who advocates the use of Linux. They are
   those who enjoys sharing the experiences they have had with Linux. These
   experiences range from an easy first-time install through regular
   day-to-day experiences, all the way to solving thorny or uncommon
   technical issues by using Linux.

   There is no admission ritual or test to become an advocate. If you enjoy
   using Linux and enjoy discussing your experiences, then you are an
   advocate.

   Linux advocates will often help with technical questions posted to COLA,
   but as technical assistance is not part of the official charter, this
   should be considered a bonus.

  3.2.2 Ordinary User

   A user of Linux that does not have superuser access. When you login into
   Linux using your personal account, you are an ordinary user. When a person
   who is a sysadmin logs into his personal account, he is an ordinary user
   as well.

  3.2.3 Sysadmin

   The term sysadmin is a contraction of system administrator. This is the
   traditional title used for the person responsible for the operations of a
   unix computer. In general, that is the person who knows the superuser
   account password. That superuser account is used for system maintenance.
   As the superuser a person is granted more privileges than the other users,
   but only when using the superuser account. For normal work the sysadmin
   should use his own personal account and become the superuser only when
   needed. The most common name for that account is "root", but it can be
   anything. The superuser account is distinguished by its user
   identification number, which is always 0.

  3.2.4 Anti-Linux Propagandists

   Anti-Linux Propagandists are those who regularly post argumentative,
   insulting, distracting, untrue, and generally unpleasant articles to COLA
   containing propaganda designed slow and even prevent to acceptance of
   Linux by the general computing public.

   The anti-Linux propagandists have one and only one purpose: to prevent the
   advocacy of Linux by any means necessary. Their methods can be blunt, such
   as starting many top-level off-topic (and often obscene) threads, and
   responding to dozens or hundreds of messages with personal insults. Their
   methods can also be subtle, such as posting random misleading comments and
   half-truths in the middle of productive discussions.

   That is in marked contrast to the behavior of true advocates of other
   operating systems are as a rule found to be polite and good-natured in
   discussing their opinions and views. We welcome the cross-fertilization
   that their participation brings.

   The most strenuously persistent and most common anti-Linux propagandists
   are those who defend and promoting Windows.

  3.2.5 Wintroll and Winvocate

   The term "wintroll" and "winvocate" have commonly used in COLA to to refer
   to anti-Linux propagandists who champion Windows. Wintroll are the ones
   who appear to behave at a lower level of sophistication than the
   winvocate. Winvocate is someone who would be a proper Windows advocate, if
   they were to post in an appropriate Windows advocacy newsgroup. That fact
   that they are posting in COLA instead of an appropriate newsgroup, proves
   that they in fact are not real Windows advocates. Often there is no record
   of them posting in any other newsgroup ever.

  3.2.6 Average Users

   The famous and mythical average users those they do not exist are often
   discussed in COLA, often as a ploy by the anti-Linux propagandists.

3.3 Conduct Acceptable in COLA

   By mandating that discussions of the benefits of Linux are to take place
   in COLA, the Charter requires that conditions necessary for those
   discussions must be maintained in the newsgroup. In consideration of the
   fact that the incessant spamming of the newsgroup (with lying and/or
   insulting anti-Linux propaganda articles, most often pro-Microsoft, at the
   rate of thousands per month) makes the mandated discussions very difficult
   to carry on, the Charter therefore does not permit such disruptive
   activities in COLA and requires that the terms in this section to be
   explicitly stated.

   Strict interpretation of the Charter of COLA, as expressed in the terms in
   the rest of this section, has been made necessary by the incessant
   spamming into the newsgroup of lying and/or insulting anti-Linux
   pro-Microsoft propaganda articles, which has occurred constantly since
   early 1999, at the rate of thousands of posts per month.

   In order facilitate communications, by making articles posted in COLA
   readable by as many people as possible, English is the language of COLA.

   All persons who are seeking information about Linux or its suitability for
   their particular needs are expressly welcome to post inquiries in COLA and
   participate in discussions. Likewise people reporting new advances in
   GNU/Linux/Open-Source software, its application, adoption by companies and
   organizations, benchmark results, and other related topics.

   The use of profanity, vulgarisms, sexual innuendo, or slurs regarding
   race, ethnicity, class, caste, gender, sexual preference, or national
   origin, is not acceptable in text or graphics posted to COLA.

   Discussion or any images of genitals, posteriors or bodily functions or of
   any lewd nature are strictly off topic and are not acceptable in COLA.
   This includes such images in the form of ASCII art.

   Lying, insulting, belittling, criticizing, grandstanding or otherwise
   attacking Linux, Linux users, or Linux advocates, their statements, or
   their position, either directly or indirectly is not acceptable within
   COLA. Attacking a statement is not the same as disagreeing with it and
   discussing it.

   The use of trolling, stone walling, FUD, disinformation, patronizing
   tactics, or that are disruptive, misleading, or otherwise have the effect
   of impeding the discussions specified by COLA's Charter, are not
   considered acceptable by the honest posters and readers of COLA; therefore
   is not acceptable.

   The X-No-Archive header was created for a valid purpose, but has come to
   be use and a method to facilitate the disruption of newsgroups. The
   readerships of various other newsgroups have prohibited the use of that
   header in their newsgroups. The use of the X-No-Archive header n COLA is
   fine if you feel concerned about your privacy in your honest postings and
   feel that its use can be of benefit to you. But keep in mind that it may
   severely lower your credibility; because, that header has been used in
   this group mostly by those who post to this newsgroup to disrupt it.

   Forging articles to appear to have been written and/or posted by another
   person is not acceptable in COLA. The use of another person's email
   address in your sig or used otherwise to appear to be your own is not
   acceptable in COLA.

   The terms "geek" and "nerd" have been used to insult persons who are
   intellectually advanced and/or advanced in the computer field. These terms
   have been used by those envious of the capabilities of those persons. Some
   have come to accept the use of those terms; however, many find those terms
   offensive. Those terms, are most often posted in COLA as insults against
   Linux users by the anti-Linux propagandists. Therefore, use of those terms
   are not acceptable in COLA.

   The topic of COLA can draw persons of all cultures and ages, including
   minors, please keep that in mind when authoring your articles for posting
   to COLA.

   Debating or arguing for its own sake is not acceptable. If you want to do
   it, go to another newsgroup, where it's acceptable or even encouraged.

   You will not purposely offend anyone who is not an anti-Linux propagandist
   or a classic newsgroup troll.

   The use of threats are not acceptable in COLA. This can be an indirect
   threat to harm a person or group of people not connected with the
   situation, with COLA, or the target of the threat, or it can be a direct
   threat of physical, mental, or cyber harm. Physical harm includes behavior
   such as any harm that threatens the life or physical well being of an
   individual, such as threats of physical violence. Mental harm includes
   behavior such as any harm that is of a psychological nature such as
   harassment, or stalking either real world or online. Cyber harm include
   any harm directed at the targets information systems or third party
   providers of information systems including such actions as email bombing,
   port scans, attempts to crack systems, and intentional insertion of
   malicious code into information systems that you do not have legal
   authority over.

   The promotion, support, incitement, or recommendation of software piracy,
   system cracking, extortion, denial of service attacks or any unethical,
   illegal, or immoral act is not acceptable in COLA.

   Each of these actions are not acceptable in COLA. Frequently changing
   identities or using multiple identities simultaneously. Assuming a new
   identity to deceive others into believing you are a newcomer to the group,
   an old timer, returning, or that you alone are not a legion of poster.
   Assuming the identity of another active or past poster. Using identities
   that are lude, profane, sexually explicit or otherwise inappropriate.

   By not abiding by these terms, you will not be welcome in COLA. The
   readership of COLA take a very dim view of these kind of violations and in
   general, you will need to make some major amends if you do display any of
   these behaviors. Making amends includes demonstrating over a prolonged
   period of time that your behavior has changed and you will not go back to
   it. Reputation is everything, and you will find it is much easier to make
   a reputation than to reform it. Some misbehavior on your part can take a
   long time to be forgiven. while some may never be forgotten or forgiven.

   Every Internet Service Provider (ISP) has Acceptable Use Policies (AUP)
   Also known as Acceptable Use Guidelines (AUG) or Terms of Service (TOS).
   As a user of your ISP you are required to abide by the terms of their AUP
   and you enter into the agreement to so abide when you establish your
   account with them. The terms of an AUP varies from one ISP to another, but
   the behaviors herein proscribed are violations of the AUP of many internet
   service providers. By violating these terms You could lose your account,
   or be banned from posting to the news group.

   In addition, many of these proscribed behaviors are illegal and the law
   enforcement agencies and other officials in your area may take a dim view
   on your actions if you choose to commit them.

   The anti-Linux propagandists are unwelcome in COLA. Firm handling of
   anti-Linux propagandists is often required for the benefit of the honest
   posters and readership of COLA.

   Individuals who repeatedly violate the above terms, in spite of warnings,
   are disrupting the activities specified in the Charter, and are therefore
   forbidden from posting. They may be subject to the usual remedies to
   prevent them from further disrupting the newsgroup.

   This section is certainly not intended to prevent honest discussions.
   People who haven't violated terms in this section are welcome to
   participate in friendly, cooperative discussions, which may include polite
   and reasonable disagreements.

   With respect, none of the guidelines or unacceptable behavior sections
   would be needed. If you respect others, you will not engage in any of
   those behaviors. You will not engage in countless others not listed here
   that are equally inappropriate. The COLA Primer and FAQ team wishes to
   advocate respect in our interactions with others. If it were not the
   actions of the anti-Linux propagandists and troll, there would be no need
   for these terms to be listed here.

   It is not respectful to come to an advocacy group and be an
   "anti-advocate". There is a huge difference between discussing the
   relative benefits of Linux compared to other operating systems, and coming
   to COLA with the express purpose of spreading disinformation and
   disrupting the newsgroup. Promoting another operating system at the
   expense of or to the exclusion of Linux or posting in a manner that
   ridicules Linux or it's developers places the offender squarely in this
   category. To discuss is a far cry from the obstructionist, the ridiculer,
   the disrupter, the FUDster - the anti-advocate.

   COLA is the cyber meeting hall and club house for those who advocate
   Linux. All other honest posters are also welcome as long as they are
   courteous, respectful, and abide by the above terms and remain on topic.

                                    4 Linux

4.1 Intrusive Suggestions for Changing Linux

   I posted a suggestion of how to make Linux easier to use for everyone and
   was met with hostility!

   This is, unfortunately, all too common. Both sincere suggestions and harsh
   replies come frequently, and both of them for a reason (though we would
   like to see less harshness perhaps in the replies).

   To understand this, it is important first to realize that nearly all of
   the programs on your Linux CDROM were written for free by volunteers who
   release their creations to the world without chance of recompense.
   Naturally, the respect that a person receives in this community is in
   direct proportion to that person's contributions. A newcomer who has made
   no contribution but tells everyone else how to "improve" it is sometimes
   about as welcome as an in-law at the holidays who tells you who to manage
   your affairs. Though you may not think of yourself that way, that may be
   the impression you are making.

   Next, if your suggestion reflects ignorance of Linux, which is in itself
   no crime, you will likely be told in one way or another to learn a little
   more about it first. It may be that what you want already exists, or is
   not necessary because of some other feature, or is considered a Bad Thing
   based on long community experience.

   If you receive one of these harsh replies, don't be afraid to ask why, but
   be sure to focus on asking more about Linux, as this is after all why we
   are all here. You may discover to your delight that your feature already
   exists, likely in a far better form than you think if you came from the
   world of popular desktop computers.

   Linux is about freedom of choice, you can choose to do things the way you
   want to and so can everyone else. If you should be thinking of changing
   anything, you should be thinking of offering a new option that everyone
   can adopt if they choose to. Your new option should not have any impact on
   anyone who does not agree with your vision of how Linux should be.
   Consider if you have been using Linux for years, you have labored long and
   hard to make your vision a reality, now someone comes along, just starting
   to use Linux, and starts trying to impose changes to support his vision of
   what Linux should be, perhaps destroying the usability of the environment
   you have worked so hard to create.

   Consider this also, very little of the software that runs on Linux is
   Linux specific, so if you try to impose a change on that software, you
   will have to get agreement from all the users of that software on all
   Unixes and many non-Unix platforms as well. How many people have that kind
   of clout in the Unix world? Not many, if any.

   Your freedom of choice ends when it interferes with that of another
   person.

   Finally, if you find yourself in a genuine disagreement about a
   suggestion, then remember the Linux philosophy, "Don't talk about it, do
   it!"

4.2 Wanting to Spread Linux to Everyone

   By definition, all Linux Advocates enjoy spreading the good word about the
   power and flexibility of this remarkable OS and its growing family of
   tools and applications.

   But Linux is not a commercial enterprise, though it is even now being
   adopted by some of the "heavy-hitters" in the computer world. Very few
   Linux applications have been developed for a "market" in the traditional
   sense. They are developed usually at first by a programmer who has a
   specific need. From there a program may pass to another developer who
   takes that beginning and adds more to it, and so on and so on.

   A decade of experience with Linux and decades of experience with Unix have
   shown that the this model produces the best quality of software available,
   and nobody wants to see this process derailed in an effort to conquer the
   world.

4.3 Don't Dump That Command Line

   This question is fast becoming irrelevant. There exists a myth that Linux
   requires the use of cryptic commands in order to do basic tasks. This is
   simply not true.

   So, if you have no taste for the Command Line, then welcome and enjoy! You
   will never go near a Command Line if you do not want to. You will find
   that you can do everything you enjoy doing, web, email, news, stock
   quotes, word processing, printer setup, and so forth, without ever typing
   in a command.

   However, if you prefer the Command Line, then welcome and enjoy! It is
   alive and well, it will never go away, and all of your beloved GNU
   commands (plus many more) are intact. If you want the power of Unix and
   cannot afford a commercial license, Linux may be just what you are looking
   for.

   Returning to the question, "Why not dump the Command Line," we see the
   real power of the Linux philosophy at work, which is that if you have no
   use for it, then don't use it! You can "dump" the Command Line by simply
   ignoring it. However, looking at it from the other direction, it is quite
   contrary to the Linux philosophy to get rid of something just because one
   group, no matter how large, has no need for it. Where would we be if we
   dropped word processing because some X percent of Linux users never need
   it? Or music playback? Or graphics manipulation?

   This question reveals much of the power of Linux and the movement that
   created it. With the addition of beautiful and flexible GUI's, the choices
   open to the Linux user have increased. That is the way of things with
   Linux: choices always multiply over time.

   But there is one final thing to be added about the Command Line: Command
   Line tools are incredibly powerful and flexible. Many feel, and we have no
   desire to debate the point, only to present it, that the Command Line is
   far faster, more powerful, and more flexible than any GUI that ever was or
   is ever likely to be. To find out more about this point of view, and
   opposing points of view, just go to COLA and post a question, you are
   guaranteed a lively discussion.

4.4 Linux Success not Prevented by Microsoft

   Success by what measure? Linux Advocates measure the success of Linux in
   terms of their own personal and professional productivity and enjoyment,
   which in Linux are in their own hands, free of the so-called "dominance"
   by any commercial enterprise, no matter how large.

   The GNU General Public License ensures that Linux can never be destroyed
   by the tactics that commercial giants usually employ against one another.
   Nobody can buy out Linux and take it away. If the Linux community were to
   suddenly lose the efforts of the top ten kernel hackers, others would step
   in and carry on their work.

   Moreover, the rapid growth of the entire Linux family of software, and the
   commensurate growth of the family of users, are accelerating even as the
   commercial giants battle for "dominance." Their struggles do not affect
   us.

  4.4.1 You mean Linux is already successful?

   Yes, as far a those who are happy to be using it are concerned.

  4.4.2 Does Linux have to be more like Windows?

   No, Linux does not have to be more like Windows. Linux only has to be like
   Linux. Why is Linux so much like Unix? Because that is what it was
   designed to be from the beginning of its development.

   If you want an operating system that is as free and stable as Linux, but
   is a clone of Windows (pick your favorite version of Windows), Linux may
   not be for you. Freedows or Freemen Windows would be better operating
   systems for you.

   Both the Freedows OS Project and Freemen Windows are a projects to create
   free and stable operating systems that are clones of Windows. It is true
   that neither of these projects have not yet produced a single release nor
   have they released any files yet. You should look into them at
   sourceforge.net/projects/freemenos and sourceforge.net/projects/freedows,
   contact their development teams and offer your services to help with their
   development. That way everyone will be much more happy.

                                5 What is Linux?

   Linux is an operating system based on the unix class of operating systems.
   It can be argued that Linux is the kernel of the operating system;
   however, in common usage the word Linux is used to refer to entire
   operating system as a whole, an operating system comprised of the kernel,
   systems utility software, user utility software and to a lesser extent the
   applications software. This is the practice that will be followed in this
   document. Specific instances of this from given vendors are referred to as
   Linux Distributions.

   Linux as stated above, is based on unix, but is not legally a clone of the
   unix operating system. On the other hand it looks like unix, behaves like
   unix, feels like unix enough to functionally be considered a unix. Linux
   is more compatible with both major classes of unix, BSD and AT&T, than
   they are with each other. Linux fully operates with with the other unixes
   as an equal peer via networking.

   Linux runs software compatible with those other unixes and in most cases
   the very same software does run on each of those unixes and Linux as well.
   Where the other unixes have deviated from each other with various
   utilities or services, Linux typically supports both of their styles of
   utilities. Often Linux is more compatible with the various unixes, than
   they are with each other.

   Linus Torvalds started developing Linux from scratch as a better unix than
   than the Minix that was then available. Minix is a contraction of Minimal
   Unix, and is the name of a very minimal unix that was licensed for
   educational purposes. The name Linux is in turn a contraction of Linus's
   Minix, although the actual results of Linus's early releases had already
   so far out classed Minix so that Linus's Unix would have been a better
   base to form the contraction Linux.

   One of the major goals of creating Linux was to create a unix that was
   free from the encumbrances of existing unixes and the licensing that
   restricted the use of Minix. So it was necessary to write the Linux kernel
   from scratch.

   The Linux operating system provides all the features that users and
   administrators should expect from any modern, high-performance operating
   system. Many of these features have been a part of Linux and stable for
   years. While the developers of various, so-called popular operating
   systems claim to be innovating, they are only playing catch up with Linux.
   As this document is being written, Linux is increasing its lead with the
   development on the 2.5.x series developmental/experimental kernels.

5.1 What is a kernel?

   The Kernel is the core of the operating system. That is the part that
   communicates with devices, handles memory management, schedules processes,
   and provides other basic services to the systems utility software, user
   utility software and applications software. Thanks to the fact that the
   kernel handles the hardware and provides a uniform view of it to higher
   level software, regardless of your hardware platform, Linux will present
   the user with a uniform environment. That means that once you as a user of
   Linux learn to run it on a PC, or a Mac, or a minicomputer, or a mainframe
   computer you will be able to sit down to use Linux on any other of the
   supported platforms, and feel right at home. The hardware may look and
   feel different such as a different key layout or a different pointing
   device, but Linux knowledge is portable across hardware platforms. Members
   of the team that produced this document can attest to this, through their
   first hand experience on multiple hardware platforms running Linux.

   Many versions of the Linux kernel have been released, in fact since the
   release of the Linux kernel version 1.0.0 in there have been over 600
   official main line kernels released, including the AC series of Linux
   kernels there have been almost 900 releases in that time. The reason for
   so many releases has to do with the development of the kernel being an
   open process, this way you don't have to wait for months or years for a
   needed patch to be provided or for a feature that you really need to be
   made available. /subsection Doesn't Linux "turn back the clock?"

   No. The Linux crowd, like enthusiasts for all Unix flavors, have a
   different motto, which is "If it is not broken, do not fix it." Text files
   were incredibly easy to deal with when they were first used, and they
   remain so.

   The term "turn back the clock" is an almost perfect example of FUD, Fear
   Uncertainty, and Doubt. The use of this approach always indicates the
   poster is attempting to direct conversation away from the actual merits of
   a particular approach.

   Consider an example. Nearly every program in use on a Linux system can be
   configured with various options, and nearly every one of those stores its
   configuration in plain text files. For those who have spent their lives
   with graphical point-and-click setup tools, this can seem quite
   old-fashioned. "Where's the wizard?" they ask.

   But the simple facts are that plain text files are technically superior to
   all other alternatives that have arisen. Plain text files do not require
   the creation of a specialized tool to handle a proprietary format. Plain
   text files can handle virtually any kind of option, and any combination of
   options. Plain text files can be printed and handed around. Plain text
   files can be loaded with explanatory comments, with notes about when and
   why an option was changed, and who changed it. Plain text files can be
   emailed without worrying that the recipient is lacking some program
   necessary to read them. In short - plain text files have everything that
   Linux enthusiasts prize: flexibility, power, and simplicity.

   Ultimately, plain text files just plain work. The Linux community will
   generally reject anything claiming to be latest-and-greatest, no matter
   how fashionable, if it threatens the stability and reliability of their
   system. This is just one reason why Linux is so stable and reliable.

   It may seem that modern distributions and graphical programs, which do
   allow for graphical and mouse driven configurations, have "seen the light"
   and replaced these text files more recently envisioned configuration
   repositories. This is not true. They are actually reading and writing to
   those same text files. As is always the case with Linux, the tent gets
   bigger as options multiply over time. Those who desire the graphical
   system can be comfortable, and those who want to go straight to the text
   files still can do so.

   Another example is the text editing programs themselves. Linux and UNIX
   users who deal with text files rapidly develop fanatical loyalties to
   their text editing programs (just try shouting "vi rules!" in a crowd of
   emacs fanatics), which often cannot print, have no menus, and use keyboard
   keys to control the program instead of mouse actions. This can be a big
   shock to those who come from the point-and-click world. The consensus
   among devotees of plain text editing is that it is just plain faster than
   the "mousetrap" programs that are currently so popular. Why should the
   editor get bogged down with a printing system when they just exit when
   they are finished and print straight from the command line? Why use a
   mouse, then you have to take your hands off the keyboard and slow down?
   Who needs a menu, when all editors basically just search, replace, find,
   replace, etc? "Learn a few keystrokes and get moving" is often the motto
   of these Advocates.

5.2 The Linux way of software development

   Some think that we must maximize our user base at all costs, to include
   all potential users. This is a pitfall of the commercial programming mind
   set, which leads to kitchen sink programming, where you have a little
   something for everyone and a lot of nothing for anyone, with a product
   that fails to fully serve anyone's needs. That is not the the Linux way to
   develop software.

   Software development with Linux is, as it should be, about creating a
   program that suits its users' needs perfectly. If that program is a text
   editor and your editor serves the needs of 100 people and it pleases them
   completely, then you have achieved complete success. Don't worry about
   somehow getting the rest of the Linux community to use your editor, other
   editors serve their needs better. If they do find that your editor serves
   them better, many will switch away from their other editors in favor of
   yours. Then there is nothing wrong with using multiple editors for
   different tasks. They could use your editor for some tasks they they think
   it is suited for and other editors for other tasks that they think those
   other editors are best suited for. There is nothing wrong with that
   either, that is freedom of choice in action and that is the Linux way.

   You will have more satisfaction for your development efforts by having a
   smaller user base comprised of users who are absolutely pleased with the
   software that you have created, than with a user base of tens of millions
   of users who can barely tolerate what you have developed, with not one of
   them being truly pleased with it.

   There is some software that runs on Linux that has fallen into the kitchen
   sink programming trap. These programs are conspicuous because they are the
   exceptions to the rule.

   There is a developing commercial software market for Linux; Let us hope
   that those developers learn the Linux way, and do not fall into the trap
   of believing that they must each try to capture the marketplace to the
   exclusion of all others. But if they do fall into that trap, there will
   still be the programmers who do know the Linux way, and users who
   appreciate that way. Those companies who fall into the same old trap that
   has dominated a sizable portion of the computer marketplace of the 1980's
   and the 1990's, will find their efforts thwarted by the Linux way.

   Due to the freedom of choice that is a keystone of Linux, let each user
   choose the programs that suit their needs best.

5.3 How good is Linux?

   Linux is very good and getting is better all of the time.

   But in the end, all questions of how good something is boil down to, "Will
   it meet my needs?" We think that the proof is in the explosive growth of
   the use of Linux, spreading as it is into servers, desktops, embedded
   systems, PDA's, and mainframes and minis.

   The more detailed questions below on Stability, Dependability and
   Flexibility should demonstrate that Linux is already the best solution for
   many situations. Read through them to see if it is Good Enough for you,
   and of course, you could post a question on COLA about your particular
   needs if you do not see them listed here.

  5.3.1 Is Linux Stable?

   Within this FAQ and Primer, we use Stability in the very strict meaning of
   unchanging. The core point here is that once a particular Linux system is
   configured as desired, no forces, internal or external, will force a
   change upon it. In this sense, Linux is stable primarily because it is not
   developed under the control of a commercial organization, no party has a
   vested interest in forcing you to upgrade. There are no "update agents"
   loading things that you do not want. And if the distribution companies do
   put them in, you can always turn them off.

   This does not limit the flexibility of Linux, however. Many of the links
   to software and projects in this FAQ (including the kernel itself) provide
   information on alpha and beta versions of software, for those who enjoy
   contributing, testing, or generally being on the bleeding edge.

   We can also cast this question in terms of permanence. In other words, how
   likely is it that something I am using today will be supported tomorrow?
   In any particular situation, the chances are very good. Consider:

          likely that if you accidentally lose that driver for that esoteric
       graphics card, you can still go out to the net and get it. There is no
       motivation for Linux vendors to get together with hardware vendors and
       purposely abandon drivers in an effort to force you to purchase new
       equipment.

          stick with something once it is deemed to be the Right Thing, and Good
       Enough. This is why we still use text files for configuration; they
       are stable, dependable, compatible, and they work! Further, the
       advance of WYSIWYG systems has not replaced the venerable Tex and
       LaTex systems, which you can find with a quick web search to be going
       strong and stable.

  5.3.2 Is Linux Dependable?

   Within this FAQ and Primer, we use Dependable in the strict sense of being
   "always there." Linux developers aim very high, and it can be safely said
   that the goal is no less than for Linux to be dependable, "as surely as
   the sun will rise in the East tomorrow."

   The question, Is Linux Dependable enough for Me? is something that depends
   on your purpose, be it desktop email reading or embedded elevator control.
   Here are some links that may get you started.

   Completely impartial studies comparing Linux uptime to other operating
   systems are very difficult to craft, but here is one very strong attempt:
   www.heise.de/ct/english/00/08/174/ A notable quote from this test is "This
   Linux machine, by the way, was up for the entire 32 test days without a
   single failure."

   A collection of pro-Linux case studies in a variety of situations can be
   found at: www.bynari.com/collateral/case_studies.html

   As for vendor-sponsored claims, this link is a press release and should be
   taken with a grain of salt, but is worth mentioning as an example of the
   kind of trumpeting that Linux is getting these days:
   www2.software.ibm.com/casestudies/swcsenet.nsf/customername/03208A42D69B7F4 E87256B00002C1BA3

   Covering the GNU tools and their strength relative to commercial cousins
   is this link (this link leads to the source of the GNU tools, the "winner"
   in their view, and must be considered accordingly):
   www.gnu.org/software/reliability.html

  5.3.3 Is Linux Flexible?

   Linux is supremely flexible, along many different lines: hardware,
   software, platforms and purposes.

   Let's begin with the world of the ubiquitous x86 platform. If you simply
   want a desktop system for basic productivity, there are a wealth of
   distributions listed at www.linux.org which will provide simple setup and
   immediate productivity. For a price of typically $70 or less at this
   writing (January 2002), these provide a collection of software that is
   equivalent and often superior to commercial packages that would cost
   thousands of dollars if purchased together.

   To continue with the basic desktop, Linux always offers choices. Rather
   than limit users to "one-size-fits-all", you can choose between two
   mainstream appeal desktop systems, being KDE www.kde.org, and Gnome
   www.gnome.org. If these do not fit your tastes, just post a question to
   COLA and you will hear plenty about the alternatives.

   But Linux's flexibility goes far beyond offering competition to the
   typical desktop. Linux "rescues" so-called obsolete equipment. For
   instance, you can download a firewall system from lrp.steinkuehler.net
   which will rival the power of hardware costing $1000's of dollars, but
   which will run on a 486 with nothing but a floppy - no CD or HDD required!

   Going in the up-scale direction, and abandoning the idea that "All the
   world runs x86", an entire project is dedicated to spreading Linux to
   large-scale configurations: foundries.sourceforge.net/large .

   In terms of CPUs, Linux can be deployed on any Intel CPU from 386sx to the
   latest Pentium, as well as:

   mainframes    www-1.ibm.com/servers/eserver/zseries/os/linux
   AS/400        users.snip.net/ gbooker/as400.htm              
   SPARC         www.ultralinux.org                            
   Itanium/IA-64 www.linuxia64.org                              
   VAX           linux-vax.sourceforge.net                      
   Mac (PowerPC) www.yellowdoglinux.com                        
   Mac (68x)     www.mac.linux-m68k.org                        
   And Others    

   If you do not see your machine listed, just go to www.google.com and type
   in Linux+MySystem, where MySystem is your desired platform. You may just
   find it has already been ported!

   To see the latest hardware supported across many platforms, drop by
   lhd.zdnet.com to see the Linux hardware database, or to see projects both
   complete and in-progress, check out
   dmoz.org/Computers/Software/Operating_Systems/Linux/Hardware_Support

   Linux has been used to create low-cost clusters of dozens or hundreds of
   "throw away" PC's that rival supercomputers. See www.beowulf.org for just
   one of these, or find out more at
   www.sciam.com/2001/0801issue/0801hargrove.html

   Going small, there is also much work afoot in putting Linux into embedded
   systems, which you can find out about at www.embedded-linux.org

   Linux also loves to coexist with other systems. While the Windows NT boot
   loader insists on owning the disk's Master Boot Record, Linux never makes
   such rude demands. You can easily maintain your current Windows NT/2000
   system with Linux dual-booting by checking out this FAQ:
   www.linux.org/docs/ldp/howto/mini/Linux+NT-Loader.html

   Along the same lines, if you have a dual-boot Linux/Win system, Linux is
   very happy to read and write to your FAT and FAT32 partitions. At this
   time, reading from NTFS systems is considered stable, but writing to NTFS
   is considered to be risky.

   Linux can also replace NT domain servers for authentication, file serving,
   and print serving to Win clients. See www.samba.org

   There is far more than this, but it can not all possibly be listed here.
   One last thing should be mentioned, which is that Linux is flexible
   because there are often different programs even for the same task, each
   appealing to different users. For news reading, there is KNode, slrn, tin,
   and pan, to name a few, while text editors abound as well, with such
   programs such as emacs, vi and its many flavors, CoolEdit, and Automatic
   Editor, also to name but a few.

   Yes, Linux is flexible.

  5.3.4 Longevity

   Free software has a characteristic that proprietary software
   lacks-longevity.

   In the early 1990's PC class computers were sold with the MS-DOS operating
   system and often with Microsoft Works. Both have since either died, or
   changed into programs unrecognizable from their origins. DOS exists only
   as a command prompt in Windows and OS/2-except for the open source
   FreeDOS. Works exists only as a Windows product that uses Microsoft Word
   for word processing. Its file formats are completely foreign to Works'
   original file formats. The way users interact with these programs has also
   changed-the feature sets have changed dramatically (which can be seen as
   both good and bad). There are hundreds, maybe thousands, of programs that
   are no longer available. Some of those programs were once the kings of the
   desktop. WordStar is one example.

   In the free software world useful programs tend to last a very long time.
   Emacs, has been around for at least 20 years. Unix, whether in free or
   proprietary incarnations, has been around since 1969. The C language has
   been around for nearly as long-it was created specifically to enable
   porting Unix to different hardware platforms (not that these are
   revelations for the COLA readership-I mention them only as contrasting
   examples). The TEXtypesetting system has been around since the 1970's.

   These differences in longevity of software have implications for user's
   expectations about it-in the effort they are willing to invest in learning
   it, and in their trust that the software will be around in five or ten
   years.

   If many in the Linux community thought Linux and other free software was a
   fly-by-night phenomenon, they probably would not invest much time or
   energy learning it or advocating its use. But the more that one realizes
   that it and its applications are here to stay, the more they are willing
   to invest time and energy learning specific pieces of software. Knowing
   that what they learn today will continue to be useful to them for years
   and decades to come.

   Why invest time in an "easy to learn" text editor that might die in a
   couple of years or a seemingly more difficult editor that has proved
   through longevity and developer support that it will be around for a long
   time to come? The first impulse upon starting to use Linux is to pick the
   easy editor (such as nedit). They do not want to invest the energy or time
   to learn Emacs or Vim. assuming that they would be supplanted by graphical
   editors. But then they started longing for better features in their
   editors. They could ask the developers to add features, pay someone to add
   them, or add those features themselves. But why, when editors with all the
   wanted features, and more, are a mouse click away?

   And what's the hurry? The software isn't going anywhere. It won't be
   outdated next year or the year after. It has proved its utility and
   longevity. Even more important in the long run is that this software has a
   stable user interface. New features have been and continue to be added
   over the years and the pre-existing features are still there. They won't
   have to learn a new way to use their computer just because developers
   might decide that break dancing provides a better way to interact with
   computers or that animated paper clips or some dweeb named Bob make life
   easier for new users.

   In Linux, some things remain constant-BASH, Emacs, Vim, the core
   utilities, and languages for programming and typesetting. New features get
   added, graphical interfaces are developed, new programs are born. But the
   latest whiz bang hypeware doesn't kill the tried and true work horses that
   made the system useful. Marketing doesn't determine a Linus program's
   lifetime, feature set, or implementation. Utility and need are the sole
   arbiters of a program's life cycle.

   There are many who would chomp at the bit to point out that most people
   just want to use their computers without having to invest time and energy
   learning 20-year-old software. The good news is-they can-even with Linux.
   The breadth of command-line, text, and graphical software for doing
   everything gives users choices in how to interact with the system. New
   users coming from other systems can adapt Linux to their style. There is
   no need to learn new ways to do anything. Complete novices can be
   productive very quickly thanks to KDE, GNOME, and BASH.

   Fortunately, there are many ways to get most things done and Linux
   provides an environment that allows gradual accumulation of knowledge and
   skill and adapts easily to any working style. And the knowledge and skill
   gained over time is not made obsolete by sweeping changes in software
   availability, feature sets, or user interfaces.

  5.3.5 Linux supported hardware

   As mentioned above, Linux supports a bewildering number of platforms, and
   has plentiful support for various devices on these platforms. Two links of
   interest are:
   lhd.zdnet.com
   dmoz.org/Computers/Software/Operating_Systems/Linux/Hardware_Support

               6 Is Linux Compatible with other operating system?

   Linux is very compatible with other operating systems.

  6.0.1 With Windows

   Linux can run Windows software through running the actual Windows
   Operating system as a guest operating system in a virtual PC emulator such
   as Wine or VMware. Linux can also run some Windows software on Linux
   itself via an implementation of the Windows Application Programming
   Interface via a package named Wine. It is also possible to compile the
   source code for Windows based software on Linux and link it against the
   Wine libraries to produce a Linux executable of that Windows software. One
   note about Wine, Wine can only run on PC style hardware, since it does not
   emulate PC hardware, and runs the Windows software directly on the
   underlying processor.

   Linux can provide network printers and act as a fileserver for Windows
   computers by running Samba using TCP/IP networking. You can also use
   MarsNWE to provide printers and network volumes using IPX/SPX networking.
   Linux can also access shares and printers provided by computers running
   Windows by the use of Samba and the Samba filesystem. Linux can also be an
   NT domain, file, and print server to Windows clients by using Samba. Linux
   machines can access Windows machines that are emulating NetWare file
   servers by using the NetWare core protocol filesystem.

   Linux can read and write to Windows hard drive partitions that use the
   filesystems of MS-Dos and Windows 9x. The NTFS filesystem are a bit
   problematic because of their nature and they way their specifications
   change from version to version. Linux can read Windows NT, Windows 2000,
   and Windows XP NTFS partitions well; however, writing directly to such
   partitions is possible but not recommended. However, there are reliable
   indirect methods to write to NTFS partitions.

   Linux handles Windows extensions to the CD-ROM standards. Linux can also
   access Windows floppies and other disk media, either by mounting them or
   with the mtools package.

  6.0.2 With Mac OS

   Linux can run Macintosh software through an emulator such as executor.

   Linux can provide network printers and act as a fileserver for Macintosh
   computers. Linux can access Macintosh based print servers and fileserver.

   Linux can read and write Macintosh floppies, hard drives, and other disk
   media.

  6.0.3 With NetWare

   Linux can work in a NetWare based network as a fileserver and a print
   queue server with the use of MarsNWE and the IPX/SPX networking protocols.
   With NCP utilities Linux can communicate with other printer queues as a
   print server. Linux can also print through a Novell-style printserver.
   Linux can be a client in such a network, using the existing NetWare file
   and print queue servers. Linux supports the Dos, Windows, OS/2, and NFS
   names spaces of NetWare.

   Support for access to NetWare partitions has recently been added to Linux.

  6.0.4 With other Unixes

   Linux software is Unix software. Some source code many need to be ported
   to Linux, but that is no different than moving such a program from one
   Unix to another. If the software in question is too low level then it
   might require a complete rewrite to run on Linux, but that is the same as
   it is between any other two Unixes already. Most other Unixes can also run
   programs written for Linux, some of the other Unixes have even started to
   support running Linux binaries. Yes, Linux and other Unixes are very
   compatible with each other's software.

   In all ways that matter, Linux is a Unix, so if the other Unix computers
   in the networks are running a version of Unix that is compatible with
   normal Unix networking services, Linux will fit right in.

   Linux can access the filesystems of a variety of other Unixes, that means
   that Linux can read their drives. Linux can access even a variety of those
   that do not use the native partitioning scheme that Linux uses on the
   given hardware platform that it is running on.

  6.0.5 With other operating systems

   Linux can run programs of various other operating systems through
   emulation software. Linux can access the floppy drives and hard drives of
   a variety of other operating systems as well.

6.1 Linux leave users wanting less.

   From them 1950's through the 1970's users would expect their computers to
   operate as specified in the manuals and the specification sheets. The POP
   manuals (Principal of Operations manuals) and the rest of the
   documentation of those computers were considered to be faithful
   representations of the operations of those computers.

   There was one computer that was installed in 1964, the organization that
   owned it decommisioned it in 1984, and wanted to donate it to a college
   computer science department but they had lost the installation media of
   the machine's operating system. The computer was running twenty-four hours
   a day and seven days a week for those twenty years without a single reboot
   or any down time. There were components that had failed: individual tape
   drives and card readers/punches had worn out and were replaced, CRT
   terminals were added and the most of the card readers, the old model 26
   keypunch stations and most of the model 29 keypunch stations were retired.
   Disk drives were added to that computer years after the initial
   installation, None of that needed any downtime or reboots.

   In the 1970's there was the development of microprocessors and
   microcomputers, most of them matched their operating systems in what ever
   form they came in and were as reliable as the computers of the prior
   decade. Some of the hardware was problematic but the operating systems
   would generally operate as specified.

   In the early 1980's something started to change. Today many users have
   come to accept and even expect their computers and operating system to
   fail frequently, many shops now use regular reboot cycles as an attempt to
   use pre-emptive reboots to avoid crashes at unexpected times. They have
   come to expect their operating systems and systems software and
   applications software to not work as documented. What is even worse, they
   often see nothing wrong with that madness. In prior decades, if such
   undependability and unreliability were experienced, it would not have not
   been acceptable and the vendor would have to replace those useless systems
   and often had to pay for the customer's losses as well.

   Now flash forward to present day, users have come to expect very little
   from their computers. Such poor performance has led them to expect less
   and less while wanting more and more with little prospect of getting it.
   But in addition to such unreliable operating systems, there is Linux,
   leaving its users wanting less and less because it provides more and more
   all the time.

     * A stable operating system
       Linux users no longer want for a stable operating system because Linux
       is as stable operating system. Twenty four hours, seven days a week
       non-stop operation for years at a time with off the shelf PC hardware
       is not anything unusual for Linux. As members of the FAQ and Primer
       team can attest to from personal experience.

     * An operating system that doesn't require me to spend a fortune on new
       hardware.
       Linux can run on hardware with just the computing power needed or that
       is available. Linux sysadmins upgrade to more powerful hardware to
       have more power available for their users, not to regain yesterday's
       performance from today's operating system.

     * An operating system with a decent graphical user interface.
       Or rather one that can be configured to work the way you want it too.
       With the look and feel you seek. Linux does not actually have any
       graphical user interfaces, but the X Windowing System is commonly run
       on Linux and other unixes. There are also other graphical user
       interface besides the X Window System that can run on Linux, including
       some next generation test bed systems. If a Linux user wishes he can
       run today a user interface that won't be available elsewhere for years
       or even decades, that is if he likes to live on the bleeding edge.

     * An operating system with lots of useful stuff built in.
       Much of what a person needs to purchase to get some other operating
       systems to be useful comes with the common Linux distributions.
       Sometimes in surprising ways, such as the little program named "cat"
       that concatenates files and is the more powerful original that the DOS
       command "type" was copied from. The program "cat" also provides by
       itself much of the functionality of Norton Ghost.

     * An operating system that doesn't try to prevent me from using my
       computer.
       Linux does not second guess or interfere with the human decision
       making process. It respects the wisdom of the human sysadmin and the
       user. There are utilities available to automate that, but in the end
       humans are the bosses. There has been a call for more "Windows like"
       automation to take over from human authority, one distribution that
       used that philosophy was Corel Linux. It is now a hated distribution
       by its own users as a result.

     * An OS not prone to viral infections
       While in theory no operating system can be 100all worms and viruses,
       Linux by is nature is immune enough that the possibilities that such
       little beasties exist have become like urban legends in the Linux
       community. Even if such infections could target Linux, the
       multifaceted code base would in itself limit the spread, if a sysadmin
       selects the software to run without regard to distributions and does
       not use precompiled binaries, he has just increased the level of
       immunity of his systems. The worst an attacking worm could do is crash
       a server program, but the worm creator could not actually control
       anything with the worm because he could not predict the memory layout
       of the program he is attacking on systems so independent from
       distributions. That same would generally be true with binaries
       supplied from a different distribution or different version than the
       one he is targeting.

     * An operating system which I can program and hack easily
       Anyone can have access to the source code of the Linux kernel and most
       if not all the programs they run on Linux. If one is a programmer,
       Linux provides all the tools and the source code to add or alter any
       feature he pleases. If he wants to write a new program and has
       questions, about the operation of the library functions, or the
       kernel, he can refer to the documentation, ask for help on-line, or
       just read the applicable source code. If he has a device for which he
       want to create a driver for, he can write it. If he wants to see how
       similar drivers work, there is the Linux kernel source code and the
       code of the other drivers available.

     * An operating system which doesn't decay over time.
       Since the late days of DOS programs and the coming of Window NT and
       Windows 95, there has been a pheonoma known as software rot, also
       known as bit rot. With late DOS programs it could take an individual
       program on a production system out of commission needing to be
       reinstalled. Windows 95 and Windows NT elevated the software rot
       phenomenon from causing the decay of individual programs to the decay
       of the entire operating system. This is not a factor with Linux.

   All these items are things that Linux users are not wanting for any
   longer, because Linux has given to them what they have been wanting for up
   to a decade. So yes, Linux leaves its users wanting less, because it
   provides so much more of what they have been hoping for from their prior
   operating system.

6.2 Linux Provides Modern Operating System Features

   Linux provides the features that have come to be expected from modern
   operating systems and features that many other operating system will only
   match after years of playing catch up. These features include:

  6.2.1 Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks

   Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks, or RAID for short, is a method of
   combining multiple disk devices or partitions into a single logical disk
   device. This can be done to provide more contiguous disk space, although
   LVM is a better and more flexible option for that. RAID also provides
   fault tolerance for drive failures because the data is stored in redundant
   locations across multiple physical drives, if an individual drive fails
   the data is not lost. RAID can also increase disk I/O improvements by
   spreading the workload across multiple drives, channels, and host
   adaptors.

   Naturally Linux supports hardware only RAID implementations since in that
   case the hardware RAID box presents itself to the drive controller as a
   single drive, or if the controller implements the hardware only RAID it
   presents its connected drives to the computer as a single drive. Linux
   also provides within the kernel a software RAID implementation. The Linux
   implementation of software RAID provides support for linear, RAID-0,
   RAID-1, RAID-4, and RAID-5.

  6.2.2 Logical Volume Manager

   Logical Volume Manager is commonly called LVM. Linux provides a Logical
   Volume Manager as a modern operating system should. Multiple partitions or
   whole drives can be assigned as physical partitions to LVM. LVM permits
   you to combine and allocate storage space that can be carved up to appear
   to be many drives, called logical volumes, or even one gigantic drive. If
   one logical volume is running short of space it can grow to consume more
   disk space. You can also reduce size of logical volumes that don't need
   the space assigned to them. Disks can be added or removed from LVM control
   and disks can be added or removed from the system at will without having
   any software beyond LVM knowing any difference.

  6.2.3 Journaling Filesystems

   The stable Linux kernels support two journaling filesystems, The third
   extended file system and the reiser filesystem.

  6.2.4 Sparse Files

   A feature of Linux filesystems design is support for efficient storage
   allocation for sparse files. How much disk space should be allocated for
   an uncompressed 10-megabyte file that contains 10-kilobytes of data with
   the remainder of the file empty? How about storing that file in
   10-megabytes? With the Linux native filesystem this is possible. Assume
   that file contains its data in two 5-kilobyte segments, one at the
   beginning of the file and one at the end of the file. Assume that the file
   was written to disk with a sparse file aware program. That file is stored
   in the filesystem as having three fragments, the first and third fragments
   are stored on disk as normal, the second fragment is the empty part of the
   file so it is allocated no actual disk space. When a program reads from
   the empty part of the file, it will to be given by the kernel a block
   containing all zero bytes. When a program writes to a part of the empty
   fragment that fragment is divided into two or three fragments depending on
   the location within it that was written to. The newly written to segment
   is in a fragment that is allocated disk space and the other one or two
   fragments generated now are allocated no disk space. The result could be a
   single file that may be continuous on disk but would be reported as being
   very fragmented.

  6.2.5 Disk Fragmentation

   The Linux Native filesystems such a the Second Extended filesystem, the
   Third Extended filesystem, and the Reiser filesystem are all designed to
   be resistant to the disk fragmentation that plagues the filesystems of
   some other operating systems. In normal use with a typical Linux
   installation disk fragmentation levels rarely approach 20unreasonable
   expectation. Sparse file handling tends to increase the apparent amount of
   disk fragmentation that is reported. So true fragmentation is often
   considerably lower than is reported by the various Linux filesystem
   utilities.

   A Linux disk defragmentation utility does exist. Most Linux sysadmins who
   know about the disk defragmentation program don't use it; because disk
   fragmentation to serious percentages without the figure being inflated by
   the existence of sparse files are rare enough that Linux sysadmins just
   don't see a need to defragment their filesystems. Such a utility needs to
   be used on an unmounted partition, that would mean that the host, to have
   its partitions defragmented, would have to go out of service for the
   duration of the procedure, that is seen as being unacceptable by many
   sysadmins. Also, defragmenting files can hurt system performance and disk
   space availability. The disk defragmentation utility undoes the benefits
   of sparse files and if the filesystem is spread across multiple physical
   drives defragmentation could move all the allocated file space a single
   drive.

   Not many in the Linux community even know about the existence of the disk
   defragmentation utility. Because of the low rate of fragmentation, and
   defrag's inconvenient and possibly detrimental side effects experienced
   sysadmin don't feel a need for it and so do not search for it.

   Most of those who do want to use that utility are among the new Linux
   sysadmins who are still approaching Linux from a DOS/Windows mind set. It
   is not recommended, but if you have a special situation and feel you
   needed it, you can locate the utility by performing a search for defrag on
   www.freshmeat.net using "defrag" for the search key. Note that defrag has
   not been maintained since 1997, so it can not handle more recent
   developments in Linux filesystems. You have been warned.

  6.2.6 Symmetric multi-processing

   Linux's Symmetric multi-processing or SMP as it is often called
   facilitates the use of all the processors on a computer with multiple
   processors. Unlike many other operating systems that support SMP only in
   their high end versions, if at all, with Linux any and every installation
   can support SMP.

   SMP was not even considered before the 2.0.x series of Linux kernels, when
   a spin-lock was placed, essentially, around the entire kernel and no
   processor switching/activation occurred between system calls.

   In 2.2.x series of Linux kernels that was changed so that individual locks
   were placed on critical system calls and sometimes were moved to critical
   sections of the system call, leaving the before and after sections
   available for simultaneous use by another CPU.

   The 2.4.x series of Linux kernels has gotten even more fine grained.
   Enough so that the scheduler and clock ticking were seen as prominent
   bottlenecks.

   The development 2.5.x series of Linux kernels already (as of January 2002)
   has a scheduler which is at least 10 times as good without any tuning,
   which will get over the next few months, and the system and CPU clocks
   have been decoupled a great deal, there is even talk of having different
   clock speed CPUs in the same system.

   This rapid advancement is evidence of what can happen when no contributor
   does more than they can easily afford but the efforts of all of them
   combined give a push that not even the largest corporations like IBM,
   Intel, and Microsoft can hope to match.

  6.2.7 Clusters

   Linux supports clustering to utilize a number of common off-the-shelf
   computers to provide the computational power of even a super computer.
   Imagine tying together a number of computers that some other operating
   systems would have you consider obsolete, and you have the makings of a
   supercomputer.

  6.2.8 Graphical User Interface

   To be precise, Linux does not have a Graphical User Interface (a GUI).
   However there are multiple GUI's that run on Linux. The most popular is
   the Xfree86 distribution of the X Window System, also called X windows or
   simply X. There is often a call to fully integrate a GUI into the Linux
   kernel; that would be highly undesirable for multiple reasons such as
   reduced stability and forcing a GUI on to those who do not want or need a
   GUI. That would also be locking Linux into supporting that one GUI alone,
   thereby locking out the rest. A common argument for full GUI integration
   is that X is too ingrained into the Linux community to permit any other
   GUI to develop, that argument exposes nothing more a lack of understanding
   of the Linux way. The reality of the matter is that other GUIs already
   exist. Such as the virtual reality based shell, 3Dsia.

  6.2.9 Networking

   Linux, as other unixes, has support in the kernel for networking. Linux
   supports TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, Appletalk, DECnet, X.25, AX.25 level 2, and unix
   domain networking protocols. Linux hosts can operate as single home host,
   multi-home hosts, bridges and routers, firewalls, and NAT boxes. Linux can
   access non-Linux fileservers and printserver and other network servers.
   Linux can serve as a fileserver and a print server using a number of unix
   and non-unix protocols.

   Besides the common Ethernet network interface, Linux can network via
   serial ports with SLIP and PPP, performing either as a dialup client, or a
   dialup server. For an organization that needs to provide TCP/IP networking
   access for their workers, member, and clients and does not want the
   traffic to cross the internet, a Linux computer with a number of modems
   serving as a dialup server is a perfect solution. Linux also uses parallel
   ports for networking with the PLIP driver.

6.3 How much does Linux cost and where can it be obtained?

   All of the major pieces of a complete Linux system are completely free to
   use under various licenses. There are exceptions, but by and large it is
   truthful, if not over-simplifying, to say that "Linux is free."

   If you are new to Linux and want to get started right away, you most
   likely want a "distribution" (more on distributions below), which is a
   large collection of ready-to-go software, all picked out and packaged with
   an aim towards a quick start, beginning with an easy installation.

   Many distributions can be downloaded directly from the internet, burned
   onto CDROM's or put onto hard drives, and installed immediately.

   We do not list all of the distributions in this FAQ, as there are many,
   and more are developed for special purposes quite often. Therefore, we
   recommend a visit to www.linux.org, which maintains a list of
   distributions, with links to their sites where you can download Linux
   right away.

   Also see the more detailed question below on distributions.

  6.3.1 Downloading Linux is not Software Piracy

   As stated above, all of the crucial elements of a complete Linux system
   are free to use under various licenses. Two of the crucial components, the
   Linux kernel itself, and the GNU command line tools, are covered under the
   General Public License, which can be viewed at
   www.fsf.org/licenses/licenses.html#GPL.

   The precise purpose of the GPL and its cousins was to eliminate what its
   authors felt were artificially imposed limitations on the free
   distribution of software. They felt that it was possible to create a
   complete operating system, one that was powerful and could never be
   "hijacked" by commercial interests. The result of countless people
   contributing for many years is what we call Linux: complete, powerful, and
   free to use.

   Linux was free from the start, is free today, and will always be free.

   So no, we are not pirates!

  6.3.2 Purchasing Linux

   Although many Linux-related software products are supported by
   universities and corporations who wish to contribute to the community,
   there are plenty of distribution companies that are profit-making
   enterprises and must ask a fee for the services they provide.

   Put simply, they spend time putting it all together for you and they need
   to pay their bills. They have to pay the electric company, create the web
   sites, and buy the computers that hold the free updates, and print those
   manuals and burn those CD's.

   Also, most distribution companies provide some type of free setup support
   if you purchase a boxed set of their CD's and manuals.

   It is important to realize that a distribution company is not charging you
   for the software itself. They are collecting for the service they have
   provided of writing some setup tools, writing some documentation, and
   getting it all packaged and delivered to the store.

  6.3.3 Linux Distributions.

   A distribution is a collection of software, most of which is free-to-use,
   but some of which may require a license, which has been assembled,
   packaged, and documented by a company that wishes to sell this packaged
   product for a profit or give it away as a service to the community.

   Many distributions nowadays are well populated with hundreds or thousands
   of packages spanning several CDs, and sport nice graphical setup tools,
   plenty of easy defaults, auto-detection of hardware, auto-booting CDs, and
   everything else you would expect from a modern operating system. Other
   distributions are intended to fit onto a single floppy and serve a very
   specialized purpose, such as being a self-contained firewall.

   The downside of all of this choice is that the newcomer can become
   confused and lost in the choices. If you find yourself confused by the
   many choices, just post a question to COLA, and ask. You will likely get
   many different opinions, which change over time as new distributions are
   released.

   So, if you are not sure which distribution to use, just post a question to
   COLA to get the current state of affairs.

  6.3.4 Distributions are not the Same

   As explained above, different distributions are meant to serve different
   audiences. Some contain "safe" (mature) versions of software, others
   contain the most recent "bleeding edge" versions. Some are geared for a
   first-time user, while others are aimed at serious veterans. Finally, some
   are aimed for high-end server work, while others include programs mainly
   for the desktop user.

   Some, of course, try to do it all, and come on many CDs.

   Besides, if they were all the same, what need would there be for more than
   one? This is a key strength of the Linux community, you are not forced
   into a single mold, you have the power and freedom of choice. The freedom
   to choose the one or ones that will serve you best.

   Linux is all about freedom, including freedom of choice.

  6.3.5 Must I make a purchase for each computer at a site?

   In general, no. As stated above, In general you don't pay for the software
   that comes with a Linux distribution. With some minor exceptions mentioned
   above, once you have a distribution in hand you can install it on one
   computer, or one million computers. You can make duplicates of the
   installation media and give them away to your friends and neighbors or
   anyone. It is all 100

  6.3.6 You don't need a distribution

   No, if you don't want to you do not have to. You can install Linux from
   scratch without using a distribution. For more details on this see
   www.linuxfromscratch.org.

6.4 What software is they for Linux?

   There is very little Linux specific software, that is software that can
   only run on Linux, but there is a great variety of software that is
   available for Linux. Much of the software for Linux is the standard unix
   fare that will be familiar to anyone who has used any unix. There is also
   much software written for Linux that will compile and run on other
   platforms as well. To see a partial list of the software available for
   Linux, go to www.freshmeat.net activate the browse link, and start looking
   around.

                                7 Who uses Linux

   All those sysadmin and computer users who have it installed are working on
   a computer on which Linux is installed. That includes individuals, room
   mates, families, clubs, schools, charitable organizations, small
   businesses, corporations, government agencies, and governments.

7.1 Businesses who use Linux

     * 58k.com, Inc
     * Advance Packaging Corporation
     * Affordable Computers
     * Amazon.com
     * Bertelsmann Foundation
     * Bharti Telesoft Limited
     * BRW, Inc.
     * Borders
     * Cameraman Photos & Video
     * Credit Suisse First Boston
     * Citywebsites
     * Computer & Communication GmbH
     * Crisis Prevention Institute
     * e-smith, inc
     * Erol's Internet Services
     * GKN Westland Aerospace Ltd
     * Google.com
     * Harbor Capital Advisors, Inc.
     * Hewlett Packard
     * Intekk Communications
     * Koch Industries, Inc.
     * Marconi Aerospace - a divison of GEC Marconi
     * Merrill Lynch & Co.
     * Meyer Tool, Inc.
     * NBM Technologies
     * New Star Service Co.
     * New York Stock Exchange
     * PC & Web Xperience, Inc
     * REDE-RS - Internet provider network
     * Replay Media
     * Robert Reford
     * Shell Oil Exploration
     * The Astrolog
     * The Strand Companies
     * Tier 3 Solutions
     * TRW

7.2 These Governments and their Agencies use Linux

     * Florida Keys Aqueduct Authority
     * Fermi National Laboratory
     * Los Alamos National Laboratory
     * National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
     * Oak Ridge National Laboratory
     * Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
     * Sandia National Laboratories
     * National Areonautics and Space Administration

7.3 Schools, Colleges and Universities

     * Auckland University
     * St. Mary's Catholic School (Rockledge, Florida)
     * Seton Hill College
     * Staffordshire University
     * University of British Colombia
     * University of California at Berkeley
     * University of California at San Francisco
     * University of Columbia
     * University of Notre Dame
     * University of Macedonia
     * University of Waterloo

7.4 Sources of information

     * www.forbes.com/home/2002/03/27/0327linux.html
     * www.netcraft.com
     * www.linux-mandrake.com/bizcase
     * www.copyleft.co.nz/should.html
     * Message-ID: <33551CC9.3...@ericsson.com>
     * www.li.org/success
     * www.linuxmall.com/?0,6,3
     * www.stmarys-school.org
     * dot.kde.org/1015251670

7.5 Charitable Organizations

   Linux is perfect for the needs of many schools and charitable
   institutions. When a company using PC hardware finds that is hardware is
   "too weak" to support the latest release of Windows and Windows based
   program, or at least does not support them productively; they will often
   replace that hardware and donate their older hardware to charitable
   institutions. That leads to a problem for the charitable institutions,
   because Microsoft does not permit the transfer of the licenses for the
   older version of Windows that the hardware runs from the company to the
   charitable institutions. The charitable institutions can then find it
   difficult to find copies of Windows that will run on that hardware; for
   the same reason that the company considered that hardware useless tends to
   lead the charitable institutions to the same conclusion.

   What can the charitable institutions do? Install Linux, and that hardware
   would be productive. If that organization is short of funds, a single
   purchase of a Linux distribution is the most it should take to run most of
   the 386+ PC hardware they have. What if they have 80286, or 8086/8088
   based hardware? They can be turned into telnet based terminals to provide
   access to their other computers that are running Linux or other unix
   operating systems. The software to do this is also free. They would need a
   copy of pctelnet (freeware), a copy of of Dos, if they do not have it,
   they can get a copy of FreeDOS (it is free), and a network packet driver,
   this driver could be provided by their network interface card
   manufacturer, or they could use one of the standard and free packet
   drivers, that have been time tested and stable.

7.6 Why Amateur Radio Operators use Linux

   Yes, this is true. More and more amateur radio operators (usually referred
   to as 'hams') are making the switch to Linux. This kind of comes under
   'specialized things you can do with Linux that are really cool'.

   There are many reasons for the use of Linux in the amateur community. It
   is beyond the scope of this FAQ to try and list all of them, but a fairly
   good summary is certainly called for.

   Right now, Linux offers kernel support of digital ham radio modes. This
   means that although they are usually not activated by default, recompiling
   the kernel allows support for these modes from within the kernel itself,
   no modules or drivers required. It is worth noting two facts here: this
   support is not available in any other OS from within the kernel, and it is
   available due to the efforts of amateurs around the world who have
   contributed to the development of the Linux kernel.

   Amateur radio literally has something for everyone. There are hams running
   bulletin board systems that are networked all over the world over-the-air.
   There are hams working OSCAR Satellites in near earth orbit, or making
   contact with the space shuttle as it flies missions. There are hams
   bouncing signals off of the moon and back to the earth again. There are
   hams that communicate with each other using digitally modulated data
   transmissions, rather than analog voice transmissions.

   This last kind of communication is in a class known as 'digital mode'.
   Probably the most common digital mode is known as packet radio. Packet
   radio, also known as AX.25, is actually very similar to the internet in
   function. An AX.25 protocol "packet" of data is encoded by a computer,
   modulated by a modem (packet modems are known as TNC's or Terminal Node
   Controllers), and transmitted by a radio in a 'data burst' that sounds
   like a psychotic cricket on speed. You know that sound that your computer
   modem makes when you are connecting up on a dial-up connection? data
   bursts sound like that but are very, very short. Typically half a second
   to three seconds in length. The process of receiving packets is the same,
   but in reverse. A ham can 'node hop' from one unattended (or attended, it
   really doesn't matter) packet station to another. A member of the team
   that produced this document has hopped all the way from the Southern
   California basin (USA) to central Texas. Every station in between takes
   the packet and ships it on it's way to the next node, like a bucket
   brigade used to fight fires in the old days.

   On the long range radio spectrums, other protocols are used, but they
   function similarly. Stations can communicate digitally with other stations
   on the other side of the earth.

   Pictures, weather fax and Amateur television are also digital modes.
   Digital modes have long been used by law enforcement to communicate car to
   car, and access databases while mobile; this all started with the
   venerable AX.25 protocol. Remember Packet?

   "What", you may ask, "has this got to do with Linux"?

   Everything! For one thing, Linux can be easily modified to fit specific
   tasks. The kernel code can be changed quite easily. But since Amateur
   radio support is already a feature of Linux, no modification is necessary
   for most digital modes of communication. The significance of this may not
   be immediately apparent. Let me give a specific example.

   It has already been mentioned that a special modem called a TNC is needed
   to translate (modulate/demodulate) the digital language of the computer
   into a sound pattern that represents the original data. These TNC's are
   not needed with Linux. Linux is the only OS that supports amateur radio
   from the kernel, allowing the Ham to leave the TNC in storage and packet
   away in style.

   A laptop running Linux can be used as a mobile packet station. Only a
   radio and antenna are needed to go on the air, anywhere in the world. The
   laptop's (or desktop's) soundcard takes the place of the TNC as data
   modem. This saves power and space and is one less thing that might fail.

   There are many other digital modes supported by Linux. The reader can
   expect more will be supported as new kernel are released.

   Hams all over the world answer their communities call for help, when
   disaster hits, and reliable communications are needed. Linux is a stable,
   reliable OS, and this emergency use has borne the fact out many times
   over. When you are a data link for local law enforcement, or Red Cross,
   you can't afford a blue screen of death.

   After hurricane Andrew, Packet radio was used to provide wireless data
   links between national guard, red cross shelters, and law enforcement to
   coordinate the relief effort. Hurricane Iniki benefitted similarly from
   packet. Packet also well served the rescue workers and the families of
   those lost in the sneak attack that destroyed the World Trade Center and
   surrounding area on September 11, 2001.

   Linux is now, and will continue to be in the future, the OS of choice for
   Hams. The reliability, versatility and open source nature of Linux makes
   it ideal. For hams running BBS's and Internet gateways to Amateur Radio,
   the security offered by Linux is essential. Our systems must remain
   secure; at the very least, an illegal transmission can earn us a tongue
   lashing from an FCC official observer. At the worst, a misuse of an (often
   unattended) station by an intruder could mean our license.

   The kernel support for data handling of all digital modes is found nowhere
   else. You can certainly use other operating systems. The question is,
   don't you want to use the best one for the job? Linux is the clear winner.

   For more information on Amateur Radio, contact The American Radio Relay
   League at www.arrl.org

7.7 Types of new Linux users drawn to Linux

   Of the variety of new users, who are willing to try Linux here are a few
   common types.

     * Type 1a - the almost happy windows user
       Those who use and love Windows but need more stability or can not
       afford the software for it they need. They are not looking for Linux,
       they are looking for safe, stable, and free Windows. Of these there
       are two sub types. One sub type is happy if Linux is close enough to
       what they have had before and are pleased to find all the things that
       Linux has given them what Windows did not have or they could not
       afford.

     * Type 1b - the windows acolyte
       The other sub type wants WINDOWS and Linux to be a WINDOWS clone in
       all aspects. Like this comment I have heard and read so many times,
       until Linux can run all the same software as Windows and Look just
       like Windows and act just like Windows it is doomed. They very soon
       will tend to dump Linux because it is not just like Windows. Wine does
       provide much of that for those who want it, however, for that same of
       that crowd I hope that Freedows get its act together and provide what
       these people are looking for.

     * Type 2a - almost happy Macman
       Same as above, about Windows, but about MacOS instead.

     * Type 2b - the macolyte
       Same as above, about Windows, but about MacOS instead.

     * Type 3 - gimme choice and freedom!
       Those who don't like Windows or MacOS, or are truly sick of them-for
       the cost, for the licensing problems, for the fragility, etc-they come
       seeking something better, they are seeking stability, they are seeking
       power, they are seeking value for their time effort and money, and
       they are seeking freedom of choice without. They are NOT seeking what
       they have left behind.

     * Type 4 - gimme unix back
       Those who have used unix before, either as a sysadmin or as a user.
       They are not interested in a Windows clone, they want a unix they can
       run on whatever hardware they have.

     * Type 5 - teach me unix
       Those who for personal or other reasons want to learn Linux/unix.

     * Type 6 - the unixman
       Those who need to run a unix to setup an environment at home equal to
       what they need to use at work or school.

     * Type 7 - the misdirected cracker
       There is a false impression by some that Linux is a cracking tool.
       This is a view that is fostered by Windows supporters and is part of
       their propaganda against Linux. There are those who are in the
       computer cracking scene, who will think that Linux is a hidden,
       underground cracking tool. Once they don't find Linux to be that, most
       of them will abandon Linux.

                      8 Linux Documentation and Resources

   Contrary to an all too common misperception that is promoted by the
   anti-Linux propagandists is that Linux is undocumented, but nothing could
   be further from reality. There is a wealth of information available in
   your machine, on the net and in books and magazines. If you purchased your
   copy of Linux you should have the ability to getting assistance from the
   company who created and maintains that Linux distribution.

8.1 Internal

   Many programs have builtin documentation passing them the appropriate
   command line option, three common command line options for this purpose
   are -? -h and -help. Some programs will present you with that
   documentation when you execute them without providing them with the
   expected arguments. Some programs have that same information available as
   an interactive help function.

8.2 man and info

   Linux has a comprehensive built-in documentation system inherited from
   prior versions of unix that is known as the manual page system (man). The
   man documentation is divided into several chapters.

          functions described in chapter 2.

          available on the system.

          packages, tables, C header files, the file hierarchy, general
       concepts, and other things which don't fit anywhere else.

          by the superuser, like daemons and machine or hardware related
       commands.

   As is in keeping with the unix standard, each software package should
   provide its own applicable man pages for installation into your man pages
   manual system. Contrary to the unix standard provision of the man pages,
   the FSF has developed a different documentation format known as info
   pages. Info pages are a primitive hypertext system providing. All packages
   on your linux system should have a manual or info page associated with
   them, although occasionally you might find something which is documented
   in a different way.

8.3 Developer Provided Documentation