Devils Head Formula!

[dennyreno]

I would like the readers of alt satanism to see this video! I call it
the Devils Head Formula!
Towards the end of this video you will see a rock by a volcano that
looks like a devils head.
You see two horns and in between the horns is a circle cup that
catches hot water coming out of a volcano! In the water are aminos
acids and they change into long protein like molecules and produce a
basic cell which life came from on earth!

In Search Of Ancient Mysteries (1975) (Part 2 of 6)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZOsudlgg1Tw

Dennis Garrett

[dennyreno]

So you can learn about where all life came from on our planet I would
like to introduce a good friend of mine in the spirt, Doctor Carl
Sagan. In this video he will tell you about the building blocks of
life!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8OvOE3iHTks
Enjoy!

Dennis Garrett

[dennyreno]

I would like to tell the readers of alt satanism that I have found the
wholy grail! Its a bi government secret and it has to do with the
microwave gun. While being shot in the heart brain and suffering a
back injury from cia agents in the state of nevada and havin my skin
burnt and laying in bed sick for years CIa agents thought it would be
a good idead to hire a tech team and live on a secret communication
line or computer net work to develope a secret electromagnetic weapon.
By developing software that can make all kinds of designs for
electromagnetic wave and magnetic waves. They thought it was a good
idea d to hook up to the usaf satellites and other transmitters. They
thought it was a good idead to start fires in nevada and california.
They thought it was a godod idead to play god and tamper with nature
by modifiying the weather spend take payers money on ground crews and
tamper with politics by using terroism. It was at the point of see so
many chemtrails and pentagrams and fires that I noticed the waves
hiting me would spark and it had to do with iononazation and molecules
sticking together. It was at some point the chemtrails and jets fires
and what ever chemical plants they blew up that year or poisons that
got into the air from epa violations that my work in the reseach
department lead me to carla sagan and the tv series cosmos where I
found a epsiode showing a large round bottom flask being pumped with
hydrogen air and other chemicals to make make molecules stick together
and form some basic moles cule that have to do with the basic building
blocks of life! As seen here on you tube! It seems they use
electricity in the air to make mole cules stick together! I filmed and
filmed the fires and then the earthquakes came from the weapon and the
radiation intellegence network ran my town. It seems this method of
science is also part of a secret weapon that cultivates poisns in the
air! THe poisons are carried into the human lungs and nto the water
and into the ground and plants. This technology in reverse is used to
carry biological agents to kill villiges of people! All being used on
the state of Nevada. The waves are capable of magnatising the human
body and making particals stick to humans.
Instead of cultivating particals on another planet to start life the
cia microwave gunners were busy killing live on earth!

Please see the way of the bomb here at you tube!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2nTuRoVj924

Dennis Garrett

> > Dennis Garrett- Hide quoted text -
>
> - Show quoted text -

[dennyreno]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Grail

Help us improve Wikipedia by supporting it financially.Holy Grail
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Holy Grail (disambiguation).
"Grail" and "Grail Quest" redirect here. For other uses, see Grail
(disambiguation) and Grail Quest (disambiguation).

How at the Castle of Corbin a Maiden Bare in the Sangreal and Foretold
the Achievements of Galahad: illustration by Arthur Rackham,
1917According to Christian mythology, the Holy Grail was the dish,
plate, or cup used by Jesus at the Last Supper, said to possess
miraculous powers. The connection of Joseph of Arimathea with the
Grail legend dates from Robert de Boron's Joseph d'Arimathie (late
12th century) in which Joseph receives the Grail from an apparition of
Jesus and sends it with his followers to Great Britain; building upon
this theme, later writers recounted how Joseph used the Grail to catch
Christ's blood while interring him and that in Britain he founded a
line of guardians to keep it safe. The quest for the Holy Grail makes
up an important segment of the Arthurian cycle, appearing first in
works by Chrétien de Troyes.[1] The legend may combine Christian lore
with a Celtic myth of a cauldron endowed with special powers.

The development of the Grail legend has been traced in detail by
cultural historians: It is a legend which first came together in the
form of written romances, deriving perhaps from some pre-Christian
folklore hints, in the later 12th and early 13th centuries. The early
Grail romances centered on Percival and were woven into the more
general Arthurian fabric. Some of the Grail legend is interwoven with
legends of the Holy Chalice.

Contents [hide]
1 Origins
1.1 Grail
1.2 Early forms
1.3 Etymology
2 Beginnings in literature
2.1 Chrétien de Troyes
2.2 Robert de Boron
2.3 Other early literature
3 Conceptions of the Grail
4 Later legend
5 Modern interpretations
5.1 Modern retellings
5.2 Non-fiction
6 See also
7 References
8 External links

[edit] Origins

[edit] Grail
The Grail plays a different role everywhere it appears, but in most
versions of the legend the hero must prove himself worthy to be in its
presence. In the early tales, Percival's immaturity prevents him from
fulfilling his destiny when he first encounters the Grail, and he must
grow spiritually and mentally before he can locate it again. In later
tellings the Grail is a symbol of God's grace, available to all but
only fully realized by those who prepare themselves spiritually, like
the saintly Galahad.

[edit] Early forms
There are two veins of thought concerning the Grail's origin. The
first, championed by Roger Sherman Loomis, Alfred Nutt, and Jessie
Weston, holds that it derived from early Celtic myth and folklore.
Loomis traced a number of parallels between Medieval Welsh literature
and Irish material and the Grail romances, including similarities
between the Mabinogion's Bran the Blessed and the Arthurian Fisher
King, and between Bran's life-restoring cauldron and the Grail. Other
legends featured magical platters or dishes that symbolize
otherworldly power or test the hero's worth. Sometimes the items
generate a never-ending supply of food, sometimes they can raise the
dead. Sometimes they decide who the next king should be, as only the
true sovereign could hold them.

On the other hand, some scholars believe the Grail began as a purely
Christian symbol. For example, Joseph Goering of the University of
Toronto has identified sources for Grail imagery in 12th century wall
paintings from churches in the Catalan Pyrenees (now mostly removed to
the Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya, Barcelona), which present
unique iconic images of the Virgin Mary holding a bowl that radiates
tongues of fire, images that predate the first literary account by
Chrétien de Troyes. Goering argues that they were the original
inspiration for the Grail legend.[2][3]

Another recent theory holds that the earliest stories that cast the
Grail in a Christian light were meant to promote the Roman Catholic
sacrament of the Holy Communion. Although the practice of Holy
Communion was first alluded to in the Christian Bible and defined by
theologians in the first centuries AD, it was around the time of the
appearance of the first Christianized Grail literature that the Roman
church was beginning to add more ceremony and mysticism around this
particular sacrament. Thus, the first Grail stories may have been
celebrations of a renewal in this traditional sacrament.[4] This
theory has some basis in the fact that the Grail legends are a
phenomenon of the Western church (see below).

Most scholars[who?] today accept that both Christian and Celtic
traditions contributed to the legend's development, though many of the
early Celtic-based arguments are largely discredited (Loomis himself
came to reject much of Weston and Nutt's work). The general view is
that the central theme of the Grail is Christian, even when not
explicitly religious, but that much of the setting and imagery of the
early romances is drawn from Celtic material.

[edit] Etymology
The word grial, as it is earliest spelled, appears to be an Old French
adaptation of the Latin gradalis, meaning a dish brought to the table
in different stages of a meal. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia,
after the cycle of Grail romances was well established, late medieval
writers came up with a false etymology for sangréal, an alternative
name for "Holy Grail." In Old French, san graal or san gréal means
"Holy Grail" and sang réal means "royal blood"; later writers played
on this pun. Since then, "Sangreal" is sometimes employed to lend a
medievalizing air in referring to the Holy Grail. This connection with
royal blood bore fruit in a modern bestseller linking many historical
conspiracy theories (see below).

[edit] Beginnings in literature

[edit] Chrétien de Troyes
The Grail is first featured in Perceval, le Conte du Graal (The Story
of the Grail) by Chrétien de Troyes, who claims he was working from a
source book given to him by his patron, Count Philip of Flanders. In
this incomplete poem, dated sometime between 1180 and 1191, the object
has not yet acquired the implications of holiness it would have in
later works. While dining in the magical abode of the Fisher King,
Perceval witnesses a wondrous procession in which youths carry
magnificent objects from one chamber to another, passing before him at
each course of the meal. First comes a young man carrying a bleeding
lance, then two boys carrying candelabras. Finally, a beautiful young
girl emerges bearing an elaborately decorated graal, or "grail."

Chrétien refers to his object not as "The Grail" but as un graal,
showing the word was used, in its earliest literary context, as a
common noun. For Chrétien the grail was a wide, somewhat deep dish or
bowl, interesting because it contained not a pike, salmon or lamprey,
as the audience may have expected for such a container, but a single
Mass wafer which provided sustenance for the Fisher King’s crippled
father. Perceval, who had been warned against talking too much,
remains silent through all of this, and wakes up the next morning
alone. He later learns that if he had asked the appropriate questions
about what he saw, he would have healed his maimed host, much to his
honor. The story of the Wounded King's mystical fasting is not unique;
several saints were said to have lived without food besides communion,
for instance Saint Catherine of Genoa. This may imply that Chrétien
intended the Mass wafer to be the significant part of the ritual, and
the Grail to be a mere prop.

[edit] Robert de Boron
Though Chrétien’s account is the earliest and most influential of all
Grail texts, it was in the work of Robert de Boron that the Grail
truly became the "Holy Grail" and assumed the form most familiar to
modern readers. In his verse romance Joseph d’Arimathie, composed
between 1191 and 1202, Robert tells the story of Joseph of Arimathea
acquiring the chalice of the Last Supper to collect Christ’s blood
upon His removal from the cross. Joseph is thrown in prison where
Christ visits him and explains the mysteries of the blessed cup. Upon
his release Joseph gathers his in-laws and other followers and travels
to the west, and founds a dynasty of Grail keepers that eventually
includes Perceval.

[edit] Other early literature

Parsifal before the Castle of the Grail - inspired by Richard Wagner's
opera Parsifal - painted in Weimar Germany 1928 by Hans Werner Schmidt
(1859-1950)After this point, Grail literature divides into two
classes. The first concerns King Arthur’s knights visiting the Grail
castle or questing after the object; the second concerns the Grail’s
history in the time of Joseph of Arimathea.

The nine most important works from the first group are:

The Perceval of Chrétien de Troyes.
Four continuations of Chrétien’s poem, by authors of differing vision
and talent, designed to bring the story to a close.
The German Parzival by Wolfram von Eschenbach, which adapted at least
the holiness of Robert’s Grail into the framework of Chrétien’s
story.
The Didot Perceval, named after the manuscript’s former owner, and
purportedly a prosification of Robert de Boron’s sequel to Joseph
d’Arimathie.
The Welsh romance Peredur, generally included in the Mabinogion,
likely at least indirectly founded on Chrétien's poem but including
very striking differences from it, preserving as it does elements of
pre-Christian traditions such as the Celtic cult of the head.
Perlesvaus, called the "least canonical" Grail romance because of its
very different character.
The German Diu Crône (The Crown), in which Gawain, rather than
Perceval, achieves the Grail.
The Lancelot section of the vast Vulgate Cycle, which introduces the
new Grail hero, Galahad.
The Queste del Saint Graal, another part of the Vulgate Cycle,
concerning the adventures of Galahad and his achievement of the
Grail.
Of the second class there are:

Robert de Boron’s Joseph d’Arimathie,
The Estoire del Saint Graal, the first part of the Vulgate Cycle (but
written after Lancelot and the Queste), based on Robert’s tale but
expanding it greatly with many new details.
Though all these works have their roots in Chrétien, several contain
pieces of tradition not found in Chrétien which are possibly derived
from earlier sources.

[edit] Conceptions of the Grail

Galahad, Bors, and Percival achieve the GrailThe Grail was considered
a bowl or dish when first described by Chrétien de Troyes. Other
authors had their own ideas; Robert de Boron portrayed it as the
vessel of the Last Supper, and Peredur had no Grail per se, presenting
the hero instead with a platter containing his kinsman's bloody,
severed head. In Parzival, Wolfram von Eschenbach, citing the
authority of a certain (probably fictional) Kyot the Provençal,
claimed the Grail was a stone that fell from Heaven (called lapsit
exillis), and had been the sanctuary of the Neutral Angels who took
neither side during Lucifer's rebellion. The authors of the Vulgate
Cycle used the Grail as a symbol of divine grace. Galahad,
illegitimate son of Lancelot and Elaine, the world's greatest knight
and the Grail Bearer at the castle of Corbenic, is destined to achieve
the Grail, his spiritual purity making him a greater warrior than even
his illustrious father. Galahad and the interpretation of the Grail
involving him were picked up in the 15th century by Sir Thomas Malory
in Le Morte d'Arthur, and remain popular today.

Various notions of the Holy Grail are currently widespread in Western
society (especially British, French and American), popularized through
numerous medieval and modern works (see below) and linked with the
predominantly Anglo-French (but also with some German influence) cycle
of stories about King Arthur and his knights. Because of this wide
distribution, Americans and West Europeans sometimes assume that the
Grail idea is universally well known. The stories of the Grail are
totally absent from the folklore of those countries that were and are
Eastern Orthodox (whether Arabs, Slavs, Romanians, or Greeks). This is
true of all Arthurian myths, which were not well known east of Germany
until the present-day Hollywood retellings. Nor has the Grail been as
popular a subject in some predominantly Catholic areas, such as Spain
and Latin America, as it has been elsewhere. The notions of the Grail,
its importance, and prominence, are a set of ideas that are
essentially local and particular, being linked with Catholic or
formerly Catholic locales, Celtic mythology and Anglo-French medieval
storytelling. The contemporary wide distribution of these ideas is due
to the huge influence of the pop culture of countries where the Grail
Myth was prominent in the Middle Ages.

[edit] Later legend

One of the supposed Holy Grails in Valencia, SpainBelief in the Grail
and interest in its potential whereabouts has never ceased. Ownership
has been attributed to various groups (including the Knights Templar,
probably because they were at the peak of their influence around the
time that Grail stories started circulating in the 12th and 13th
centuries).

There are cups claimed to be the Grail in several churches, for
instance the Saint Mary of Valencia Cathedral, which contains an
artifact, the Holy Chalice, supposedly taken by Saint Peter to Rome in
the first century, and then to Huesca in Spain by Saint Lawrence in
the 3rd century. According to legend the monastery of San Juan de la
Peña, located at the south-west of Jaca, in the province of Huesca,
Spain, protected the chalice of the Last Supper from the Islamic
invaders of the Iberian Peninsula. Archaeologists say the artifact is
a 1st century Middle Eastern stone vessel, possibly from Antioch,
Syria (now Turkey); its history can be traced to the 11th century, and
it presently rests atop an ornate stem and base, made in the Medieval
era of alabaster, gold, and gemstones. It was the official papal
chalice for many popes, and has been used by many others, most
recently by Pope Benedict XVI, on July 9, 2006.[5] The emerald chalice
at Genoa, which was obtained during the Crusades at Caesarea Maritima
at great cost, has been less championed as the Holy Grail since an
accident on the road, while it was being returned from Paris after the
fall of Napoleon, revealed that the emerald was green glass.

In Wolfram von Eschenbach's telling, the Grail was kept safe at the
castle of Munsalvaesche (mons salvationis), entrusted to Titurel, the
first Grail King. Some, not least the monks of Montserrat, have
identified the castle with the real sanctuary of Montserrat in
Catalonia, Spain. Other stories claim that the Grail is buried beneath
Rosslyn Chapel or lies deep in the spring at Glastonbury Tor. Still
other stories claim that a secret line of hereditary protectors keep
the Grail, or that it was hidden by the Templars in Oak Island, Nova
Scotia's famous "Money Pit", while local folklore in Accokeek,
Maryland says that it was brought to the town by a closeted priest
aboard Captain John Smith's ship. Turn of the century accounts state
that Irish partisans of the Clan Dhuir (O'Dwyer, Dwyer) transported
the Grail to the United States during the 19th Century and the Grail
was kept by their descendents in secrecy in a small abbey in the upper-
Northwest (now believed to be Southern Minnesota). [6]

[edit] Modern interpretations

[edit] Modern retellings

The Damsel of the Sanct Grael by Dante Gabriel RossettiThe story of
the Grail and of the quest to find it became increasingly popular in
the nineteenth century, referred to in literature such as Alfred
Tennyson's Arthurian cycle the Idylls of the King. The combination of
hushed reverence, chromatic harmonies and sexualized imagery in
Richard Wagner's late opera Parsifal gave new significance to the
grail theme, for the first time associating the grail – now
periodically producing blood – directly with female fertility.[7] The
high seriousness of the subject was also epitomized in Dante Gabriel
Rossetti's painting (illustrated), in which a woman modelled by Jane
Morris holds the Grail with one hand, while adopting a gesture of
blessing with the other. Other artists, including George Frederic
Watts and William Dyce also portrayed grail subjects.

The Grail later turned up in movies; it debuted in a silent Parsifal.
In The Light of Faith (1922), Lon Chaney attempted to steal it, for
the finest of reasons. The Silver Chalice, a novel about the Grail by
Thomas B. Costain was made into a 1954 movie (in which Paul Newman
debuted), that is considered notably bad by several critics, including
Newman himself. Lancelot du Lac (1974) is Robert Bresson's gritty
retelling. In vivid contrast, Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975)
(adapted in 2004 as the stage production Spamalot) deflated all pseudo-
Arthurian posturings. Excalibur attempted to restore a more
traditional heroic representation of an Arthurian tale, in which the
Grail is revealed as a mystical means to revitalise Arthur himself,
and of the barren land to which his depressive sickness is connected.
Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade and The Fisher King place the quest
in modern settings, one a modern-day treasure hunt, the other robustly
self-parodying.

The Grail has been used as a theme in fantasy, historical fiction and
science fiction; a quest for the Grail appears in Bernard Cornwell's
series of books The Grail Quest, set during The Hundred Years War.
Michael Moorcock's fantasy novel The War Hound and the World's Pain
depicts a supernatural Grail quest set in the era of the Thirty Years'
War, and science fiction has taken the Quest into interstellar space,
figuratively in Samuel R. Delany's 1968 novel Nova, and literally on
the television shows Babylon 5 and Stargate SG-1 (as the "Sangraal").
Marion Zimmer Bradley's The Mists of Avalon has the grail as one of
four objects symbolizing the four Elements: the Grail itself (water),
the sword Excalibur (fire), a dish (earth), and a spear or wand (air).
The grail features heavily in the novels of Peter David's Knight
trilogy, which depict King Arthur reappearing in modern-day New York
City, in particular the second and third novels, One Knight Only and
Fall of Knight. The grail is central in many modern Arthurian works,
including Charles Williams collections of poems about Taliessin,
Taliessin Through Logres and Region of the Summer Stars, and in
feminist author Rosalind Miles' Child of the Holy Grail. The Grail
also features heavily in Umberto Eco's 2000 novel Baudolino. In King
and Emperor, the final volume of Harry Harrison's 1990s trilogy The
Hammer and the Cross, the name "grail" is explained to be a corruption
of "graduale", Latin for ladder, and the Holy Grail is discovered,
being the ladder which was used to remove Jesus' body from the cross
and on which the body was carried away. The story further "reveals"
that Jesus survived the crucification, and went on to live a life and
father children, as well as writing a repressed Gospel.

[edit] Non-fiction
The Grail has also been treated in works of non-fiction, generally of
dubious historical value, which frequently connect it to conspiracy
theories and esoteric traditions. According to the notorious Italian
traditionalist philosopher Julius Evola (1898-1974), the Holy Grail
mythos is interwoven with an initiatory "Hyperborean mystery" of the
knightly or warrior-Kshatriya class and represents "a symbolic
expression of hope and of the will of specific ruling classes in the
Middle Ages (namely, Ghibellines), who wanted to reorganize and
reunite the entire Western world as it was at that time into a Holy
Empire, that is, one based on a transcendental, spiritual basis."[8]

In The Sign and the Seal, Graham Hancock asserts that the Grail story
is a coded description of the stone tablets stored in the Ark of the
Covenant. For the authors of Holy Blood, Holy Grail, who assert that
their research ultimately reveals that Jesus may not have died on the
cross, but lived to wed Mary Magdalene and father children whose
Merovingian lineage continues today, the Grail is a mere sideshow:
they say it is a reference to Mary Magdalene as the receptacle of
Jesus' bloodline.[9][10][11]

Such works have been the inspiration for a number of popular modern
fiction novels. The best known is Dan Brown's bestselling novel The Da
Vinci Code, which, like Holy Blood, Holy Grail, is based on the idea
that the real Grail is not a cup but the womb and later the earthly
remains of Mary Magdalene (again cast as Jesus' wife), plus a set of
ancient documents telling the "true" story of Jesus, his teachings and
descendants. In Brown's novel, it is hinted that Jesus was merely a
mortal man with strong ideals, and that the Grail was long buried
beneath Rosslyn Chapel in Scotland, but that in recent decades its
guardians had it relocated to a secret chamber embedded in the floor
beneath the Inverted Pyramid near the Louvre Museum. The latter
location, like Rosslyn Chapel, has never been mentioned in real Grail
lore. Yet such was the public interest in this fictionalized Grail
that for a while, the museum roped off the exact location mentioned by
Brown, lest visitors inflict any damage in a more-or-less serious
attempt to access the supposed hidden chamber

[edit] See also
Cornucopia, sampo and the Cup of Jamshid are other mythical vessels
with magical powers.
Relics attributed to Jesus

[edit] References
^ Loomis, Roger Sherman (1991). The Grail: From Celtic Myth to
Christian Symbol. Princeton. ISBN 0-691-02075-2 [1]
^ Goering, Joseph (2005). The Virgin and the Grail: Origins of a
Legend. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10661-0. [2]
^ Rynor, Micah (October 20, 2005). "Holy Grail legend may be tied to
paintings". www.news.utoronto.ca.
^ Barber, Richard (2004). The Holy Grail: Imagination and Belief,
Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01390-5. [3]
^ Glatz, Carol (July 10, 2006). "At Mass in Valencia, pope uses what
tradition says is Holy Grail". Catholic News.
^ Wagner, Wilhelm, Romance and Epics of Our Northern Ancestors, Norse,
Celt and Teuton, Norroena Society Publisher, New York, 1906.
^ Donington, Robert (1963). Wagner's "Ring" and its Symbols: the Music
and the Myth. Faber
^ Hansen, H. T. The Mystery of the Grail, p. vii.
^ Baigent, Michael; Leigh, Richard; Lincoln, Henry (1983). Holy Blood,
Holy Grail. New York: Dell. ISBN 0-440-13648-2
^ Juliette Wood, Folklore, Vol. 111, No. 2. (Oct., 2000), pp.
169-190.
^ "The Holy Grail: From Romance Motif to Modern Genre"

[edit] External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Holy Grail
The Holy Grail at the Camelot Project
The Holy Grail at the Catholic Encyclopedia
The Holy Grail today in Valencia Cathedral
The Holy Grail, an episode of In Our Time (BBC Radio 4), a 45 minute
discussion is available for listening at the page.
(French) XVth century Old French Estoire del saint Graal manuscript
BNF fr. 113 Bibliothèque Nationale de France, selection of illuminated
folios, Modern French Translation, Commentaries.
[hide]v • d • eKing Arthur and the Matter of Britain

Key people King Arthur · Constantine · Sir Ector · Duke of Cornwall ·
Guinevere · Igraine · Iseult · Lady of the Lake · King Lot · King Mark
· Merlin · Mordred · Morgan le Fay · Morgause · Uther Pendragon

Knights of the
Round Table Agravain · Bagdemagus · Bedivere · Bors · Breunor (La Cote
Male Taile) · Calogrenant · Caradoc · Dagonet · Dinadan · Gaheris ·
Galahad · Gareth · Gawain · Geraint · Griflet · Kay · Lamorak ·
Lancelot · Leodegrance · Lionel · Lucan · Maleagant · Marhaus ·
Palamedes · Pelleas · Pellinore · Percival · Safir · Sagramore ·
Segwarides · Tor · Tristan · Uriens · Ywain · Ywain the Bastard

Objects Excalibur · Holy Grail · Round Table · Siege Perilous

Places Avalon · Camelot · Corbenic · Cornwall · Logres · Lyonesse ·
Paimpont forest · Sarras · Tintagel

In media Books · Films · Various media

Other Sir Balin · Dolorous Stroke · Elaine of Astolat · Fisher King ·
Green Knight · King Arthur's messianic return · King Arthur's family ·
Historical basis for King Arthur · Emperor Lucius · Questing Beast

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Grail"
Categories: Christian folklore | Christian mythology | Holy Grail |
Medieval legends | Mythological objects | Relics attributed to Jesus |
Jesus and history | Metaphors referring to objects
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> > - Show quoted text -- Hide quoted text -

[dennyreno]

Here is a video from unsolved mysteries called the blob. It seems that
the navy or usaf sprayed a town with a clear jelly that made people
sick and killed animals.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GSkJyt-afJE

> > - Show quoted text -- Hide quoted text -

[dennyreno]

As in the movie it seems the state of nevada took the wrong grail to
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiana_Jones_and_the_Last_Crusade

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Last Crusade

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This article is about the film. For the video games, see Indiana Jones
and the Last Crusade (video game).

Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade

Directed by Steven Spielberg
Produced by Robert Watts
Executive producers:
George Lucas
Frank Marshall
Written by Screenplay:
Jeffrey Boam
Tom Stoppard
(uncredited)
Story:
George Lucas
Menno Meyjes
Starring Harrison Ford
Sean Connery
Alison Doody
Denholm Elliott
Julian Glover
River Phoenix
John Rhys-Davies
Music by John Williams
Cinematography Douglas Slocombe
Editing by Michael Kahn
Studio Lucasfilm Ltd.
Distributed by Paramount Pictures
Release date(s) United States:
May 24, 1989
Australia:
June 8, 1989
United Kingdom:
June 30, 1989
Running time 127 min.
Country United States
Language English
Budget $55,364,887[1]
Gross revenue $474.17 million
Preceded by Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom
Followed by Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull
Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade is a 1989 American adventure film
directed by Steven Spielberg, from a story co-written by executive
producer George Lucas. It is the third film in the Indiana Jones
franchise. Harrison Ford reprises the title role and Sean Connery
plays Indiana's father, Henry Jones, Sr. Alison Doody, Denholm
Elliott, Julian Glover, River Phoenix and John Rhys-Davies also have
featured roles. Set largely in 1938, Indiana searches for his father,
a Holy Grail scholar, who has been kidnapped by Nazis.

After the mixed reaction to the dark Indiana Jones and the Temple of
Doom, Spielberg chose to compensate by completing the trilogy with a
movie lighter in tone. During the five years between Temple of Doom
and Last Crusade, he and executive producer Lucas reviewed several
scripts before accepting Jeffrey Boam's. The filming locations
included Spain, Italy, England, and Jordan.

The film was released in North America on May 24, 1989 to mixed
reviews, but received a better overall reception than Temple of Doom.
It was a financial success, outgrossing the two previous Indiana Jones
movies with $474,171,806 at the worldwide box office.

Contents [hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
3.1 Development
3.2 Filming
3.3 Design
3.4 Effects
4 Themes
5 Cultural references
6 Release
6.1 Marketing
6.2 Box office
6.3 Reviews
6.4 Impact

7 References
8 External links

[edit] Plot
The prologue depicts a young Indiana Jones in 1912 as a Boy Scout
settling in Utah, battling grave robbers for the Cross of Coronado, an
ornamental cross belonging to Francisco Vázquez de Coronado. As the
foiled grave robbers give chase, Indiana hides in a circus train, in
the process using a whip, scarring his chin, and gaining a fear of
snakes. Although he rescues the cross, the robbers tell the Sheriff
that Indiana was the thief, and he is forced to return it, while his
oblivious father, Henry, is working on his research into the Holy
Grail, keeping meticulous notes in a diary. The leader of the hired
robbers, dressed very similarly to the future Indiana and impressed by
the young man's tenacity, gives him his fedora and some encouraging
words. In 1938, Indiana recovers the cross from the robbers' ship in
the coast of Portugal, and donates it to Marcus Brody's museum.

Indiana is introduced to the wealthy Walter Donovan, who informs him
that Indy's father has vanished while searching for the Holy Grail,
using an incomplete stone tablet as his guide. Indy receives a package
which turns out to be his father's Grail diary, containing all his
life's research on the Grail. Understanding that his father would not
have sent the diary unless he was in trouble, Indiana and Marcus
travel to Venice, where they meet Henry's colleague Dr. Elsa
Schneider. Indiana and Elsa discover catacombs beneath the library
where Henry was last seen, and discover the tomb of Sir Richard, a
knight of the First Crusade, with a complete version of the stone
tablet that Henry used. They flee when the catacombs are set aflame by
The Brotherhood of the Cruciform Sword, and they capture the cult's
leader, Kazim. After Indiana convinces him of their intentions, Kazim
explains The Brotherhood are protecting the Grail, and that Henry was
abducted to a castle on the Austrian-German border.

Indiana and Elsa infiltrate the castle. Indiana finds his father, but
learns that Elsa and Donovan are working with the Nazis to seek the
grail, hoping that Indiana would discover its location. The Nazis
capture Marcus, who had traveled to Iskenderun, Hatay with the maps to
the Grail's location and seek out the protection of Sallah. The
Joneses are able to escape and recover the diary from Elsa, who had
taken it to Berlin. They meet with Sallah in Hatay and learn of
Marcus' abduction and that the Nazis, backed with resources from the
country's leader, are already moving to the Grail's location. With the
help of The Brotherhood, the Joneses ambush the convoy and rescue
Marcus, though Donovan and Elsa continue on to the Canyon of the
Crescent Moon, where the Grail is located.

The Joneses, Marcus, and Sallah catch up and find that the Nazis are
unable to pass through traps set before the Grail. The four are
discovered, and Donovan mortally shoots Henry, forcing Indiana to
circumnavigate the traps using the information in his father's diary,
with Donovan and Elsa shortly following him. Indiana succeeds and
finds the last Knight of the First Crusade, kept alive with the power
of the Grail, and whom has hidden the Grail among several other cups.
After being told to "choose wisely", Elsa selects a cup, but when
Donovan tries it, the water he drinks from it ages him dramatically
into ashes. Indiana, recognizing that the Grail would be that of a
humble carpenter instead of a wealthy king, selects the correct
vessel, and quickly takes water in it to his father, which heals his
wounds instantly. As they prepare to leave, the Knight warns them to
not take the Grail out of the temple, but Elsa does so, causing the
temple to collapse. Elsa falls into a ravine in the ground attempting
to recover the Grail, and Indiana almost meets the same fate until his
father tells him to let it go. The Joneses, Marcus, and Sallah flee
the collapsing temple and ride off into the sunset together, after
Henry tells the group that "Indiana" was actually their dog's name.

[edit] Cast
See also: List of characters in the Indiana Jones series
Harrison Ford as Indiana Jones: The archaeologist adventurer who seeks
to rescue his father and find the Holy Grail. Ford said he loved the
idea of introducing Indiana's father because it allowed him to explore
another side to Indiana's personality: "These are men who have never
made any accommodation to each other. Indy behaves differently in his
father's presence. Who else would dare call Indy 'junior'?"[2] Ford
signed to the project on February 9, 1987.[3] He insisted on
performing many of his own stunts, to the point that double Vic
Armstrong joked his toughest stunt was to coerce Ford into letting him
perform some. Among those Armstrong performed was the ten feet leap
from Indiana's horse onto the tank, and Indiana's leaping from a rock
to steal the horse, which Armstrong only convinced Ford to let him do
because he felt he would have been out of a job.[4]
River Phoenix played the 13-year-old Indiana. Phoenix had portrayed
Ford's son in The Mosquito Coast (1986). Ford recommended Phoenix for
the part; he said that of the young actors working at the time,
Phoenix looked the most like him when he was around that age.[5]
Phoenix had been looking for a lighter, more comic role.[6] Ford was
present during filming to advise Phoenix on his portrayal.[7]
Lucasfilm was secretive about Phoenix's casting, referring to the
young Indiana as "boy on train" in the script. When it was leaked,
they spread a rumor he was playing Indiana's younger brother.[6]
Phoenix performed opposite the lion, although a stuntman was required
for the more dangerous shots of Indiana being swiped at and the shot
of Indiana cracking his whip at the animal.[4]
Sean Connery as Professor Henry Jones: Indiana's father, a professor
of Medieval literature who cared more about looking for the Grail than
raising his son. Alex Hyde-White stood in for Connery in the prologue.
Spielberg had Connery in mind when he suggested introducing Indiana's
father, though he did not tell Lucas at first. Consequently, Lucas
wrote the role as "a crazy, eccentric" professor resembling Laurence
Olivier, whose relationship with Indiana is "strict schoolmaster and
student rather than a father and son".[3] Spielberg had been a fan of
Connery's work as James Bond and felt that no-one else could perform
the role as well.[8] Spielberg biographer Joseph McBride wrote,
"Connery was already the father of Indiana Jones since the series had
sprung from the desire of Lucas and Spielberg to rival (and outdo)
Connery's James Bond movies."[9] Connery initially turned the role
down as he is only twelve years older than Ford, but he relented.
Connery—a student of history—began to reshape the character, and
revisions were made to the script to address his concerns. "I wanted
to play Henry Jones as a kind of Sir Richard [Francis] Burton,"
Connery commented. "I was bound to have fun with the role of a gruff,
Victorian Scottish father."[8] Connery believed Henry should be a
match for his son, telling Spielberg that "whatever Indy'd done my
character has done and my character has done it better".[5] Connery
signed to the film on March 25, 1988.[3] He improvised the line, "She
talks in her sleep", which was left in because it made everyone laugh;
[10] in Boam's scripts, Henry telling Indiana that he slept with Elsa
occurs later.[3]
Alison Doody as Dr. Elsa Schneider: An Austrian art professor who is
in league with the Nazis. She seduces the Joneses to trick them. Doody
was 21 when she auditioned and was one of the first actresses who met
for the part.[3] Doody scarred herself while filming the catacombs
scene, when hot wax on the torch she held dripped onto her hand; Ford
noticed and dipped her hand into the water, preventing a burn.[1]
Although Doody drove the boat for the Venetian chase, no one had
instructed her in driving it. The filmmakers regretted their decision
when she almost crashed her boat into the one in which they were
filming.[10] She did not mind filming with the rats, noting the
animals were probably more afraid of her than she was of them.[4]
Denholm Elliott as Dr. Marcus Brody: Indiana's bumbling colleague.
Elliott returned after Spielberg sought to recapture the tone of
Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981), following the actor's absence in the
darker Temple of Doom (1984).[5] Elliott felt his small role in the
first film had been boring, so he enjoyed that in The Last Crusade,
Brody is revealed to have "two left feet". He added, "I love comedy,
life is too boring and sad without it."[6] Elliott and Connery
improvised the "Genius of the restoration... Aid our own
resuscitation" University Club toast.[11]
John Rhys-Davies as Sallah: A friend of Indiana and a professional
excavator living in Cairo. Like Elliott's, Rhys-Davies' return was an
attempt to recapture the spirit of Raiders of the Lost Ark.[5] Rhys-
Davies said that since the previous film, Sallah "has gotten older and
a little fatter. This time, we see him without the appurtenances of
his wife and children. He's a little more resolute now, and he's more
ready to have a physical go at the Germans himself. But other than
that, he's still the same old Sallah."[6] Rhys-Davies suffered from
sciatica during filming, which was not helped by the horse riding
required.[4] He fell from his horse while mounting it for the film's
final scene after it was spooked by Connery's, but was uninjured.[1]
Julian Glover as Walter Donovan: An American businessman who sends the
Joneses on their quest for the Holy Grail. Donovan works for the Nazis
and desires immortality. Glover previously appeared as General Veers
in Lucas's Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back. Glover lived
next door to producer Robert Watts, and auditioned for the role of
Vogel. He did not get the part but the producers wanted him for
Donovan.[3] To cover his Irish accent, Glover adopted an American one,
[12] although he was dissatisfied with the result.[5] Watts suggested
that Glover's wife, Isla Blair, cameo as Donovan's wife.[3]
Michael Byrne as Colonel Vogel: A brutal SS colonel. Byrne and Ford
had previously sparred in Force 10 from Navarone (1978), in which they
also played a German and an American.[6]
Kevork Malikyan as Kazim: The leader of the Brotherhood of the
Cruciform Sword, an organization that protects the Holy Grail.
Malikyan had impressed Spielberg with his performance in Midnight
Express (1978) and would have auditioned for the role of Sallah in
Raiders of the Lost Ark had a traffic jam not delayed his meeting with
the director.[6]
Robert Eddison as the Grail Knight: The guardian of the Grail who
drank from the cup of Christ during the Crusades and is immortal as
long as he stays within the temple. Eddison was a stage and television
veteran but had never appeared in a film. Glover recalled Eddison was
excited and nervous for his film debut, often asking if he had
performed correctly.[1]
Vernon Dobtcheff as the Butler: He opens the door to the Austrian
castle to Indiana, who claims to be the Scottish Lord Clarence
MacDonald. The butler replies, "If you are Scottish lord, then I am
Mickey Mouse", forcing Indiana to knock him unconscious. Spielberg and
Lucas initially intended the butler to quip that he was Jesse Owens,
and then Mae West, but felt younger viewers would not understand the
joke. The scene was shortened during editing to exclude Indiana hiding
the butler in a sarcophagus that has an uncanny resemblance to him.
[13]
Michael Sheard as Adolf Hitler: The Nazi leader, who literally bumps
into a disguised Indiana during a book-burning rally. Not realizing
that he has encountered Indiana or that he is holding the Grail Diary,
he opens the diary to a random page, autographs it, and gives it back
to Indiana. Sheard, who could speak German, had auditioned for the
role of Toht in Raiders of the Lost Ark, but was cast as the U-boat
captain. Weather and scheduling difficulties forced Sheard to leave
before completing his scenes, so Spielberg cut him out and promised he
would find him another role in the series. The close-up of Hitler
signing his autograph with his right hand was added with another actor
during pickups, although Hitler was left-handed.[14]
Ronald Lacey, who played Toht in Raiders of the Lost Ark, cameos as
Heinrich Himmler. Alexei Sayle played the sultan of Hatay. Wrestler
and stuntman Pat Roach, who played five roles in the previous two
films, made a short cameo as the Nazi who accompanies Vogel to the
Zeppelin. Roach was set to film a fight with Ford, but it was cut.[15]
In a deleted scene, Roach's agent boards the second biplane on the
Zeppelin with a World War I flying ace (played by Frederick Jaeger),
only for the pair to fall to their deaths after the flying ace makes
an error.[1]

[edit] Production

[edit] Development
Lucas and Spielberg had intended to make a trilogy of Indiana Jones
films since Lucas had first pitched Raiders of the Lost Ark to
Spielberg in 1977.[16] After the mixed critical and public reaction to
Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom, Spielberg decided to complete
the trilogy to fulfill his promise to Lucas and "to apologize for the
second one".[17] The pair had the intention of revitalizing the series
by evoking the spirit and tone of Raiders of the Lost Ark.[5]
Throughout development and pre-production of The Last Crusade,
Spielberg admitted he was "consciously regressing" in making the film.
[9] Due to his commitment to The Last Crusade, the director had to
drop out of directing Big (1988) and Rain Man (1988).[16]

Chris Columbus's script featured the Monkey King in AfricaLucas
initially suggested making the film "a haunted mansion movie", for
which Romancing the Stone writer Diane Thomas wrote a script.
Spielberg rejected the idea because of the similarity to Poltergeist
(1982), which he had co-written and produced.[9] Lucas first
introduced the Holy Grail in an idea for the film's prologue, which
was to be set in Scotland. He intended the Grail to have a pagan
basis, with the rest of the film revolving around a separate Christian
artifact in Africa. Spielberg did not care for the Grail idea, which
he found too esoteric,[2], even after Lucas suggested giving it
healing powers and the ability to grant immortality. In September 1984
Lucas completed an eight-page treatment entitled Indiana Jones and the
Monkey King, which he soon followed with an 11-page outline. The story
saw Indiana battling a ghost in Scotland before finding the Fountain
of Youth in Africa.[3]

Chris Columbus — who had written the Spielberg-produced Gremlins
(1984), The Goonies (1985) and Young Sherlock Holmes (1985) — was
hired to write the script. His first draft, dated May 3, 1985, changed
the main plot device to a Garden of Immortal Peaches. It begins in
1937, with Indiana battling the murderous ghost of Baron Seamus
Seagrove III in Scotland. Indiana travels to Mozambique to aid Dr.
Clare Clarke (a Katharine Hepburn type, according to Lucas) who has
found a 200-year-old pygmy. The pygmy is kidnapped by the Nazis during
a boat chase, and Indiana, Clare and Scraggy Brier—an old friend of
Indiana—travel up the Zambesi river to rescue him. Indiana is killed
in the climactic battle but is resurrected by the Monkey King. Other
characters include a cannibalistic African tribe; Nazi Sergeant
Gutterbuhg, who has a mechanical arm; Betsy, a stowaway student who is
suicidally in love with Indiana; and a pirate leader named Kezure
(described as a Toshirō Mifune type), who dies eating a peach because
he is not pure of heart. The tank is three stories high and requires
Indiana to ride a rhinoceros to commandeer it.[3]

Columbus's second draft, dated August 6, 1985, removed Betsy and
featured Dash — an expatriate bar owner working for the Nazis — and
the Monkey King as villains. The Monkey King forces Indiana and Dash
to play chess with real people and disintegrates each person who is
captured. Indiana subsequently battles the undead, destroys the Monkey
King's rod, and marries Clare.[3] Location scouting commenced in
Africa but Spielberg and Lucas abandoned Monkey King because of its
negative depiction of African natives,[18], and because the ridiculous
script was unrealistic.[3] Spielberg acknowledged that it made him
"...feel very old, too old to direct it."[2] Columbus's script was
leaked onto the Internet in 1997, and many believed it was an early
draft for the fourth film because it was mistakenly dated to 1995.[19]

Unsatisfied, Spielberg suggested introducing Indiana's father, Henry
Jones, Sr. Lucas was dubious, believing the Grail should be the focus
of the story, but Spielberg convinced him that the father–son
relationship would serve as a great metaphor in Indiana's search for
the artifact.[9] Spielberg hired Menno Meyjes, who had worked on
Spielberg's The Color Purple and Empire of the Sun, to begin a new
script on January 1, 1986. Meyjes completed his script ten months
later. It depicted Indiana searching for his father in Montségur,
where he meets a nun named Chantal. Indiana travels to Venice, takes
the Orient Express to Istanbul, and continues by train to Petra, where
he meets Sallah and reunites with his father. In the denouement, the
Nazis touch the Grail and explode; when Henry touches it, he ascends a
staircase into Heaven. Chantal chooses to stay on Earth and marries
Indiana. In a revised draft dated two months later, Indiana finds his
father in Krak des Chevaliers, the Nazi leader is a woman named Greta
von Grimm, and Indiana battles a demon at the Grail site, which he
defeats with a dagger inscribed with "God is King". The prologue in
both drafts has Indiana in Mexico battling for possession of
Montezuma's mask with a man who owns gorillas as pets.[3]

Indiana Jones (River Phoenix) finds the Cross of Coronado as a 13-year-
old Boy Scout. Spielberg suggested making Indiana a Boy Scout as he
was one as a child.Spielberg suggested Innerspace writer Jeffrey Boam
perform the next rewrite. Boam spent two weeks reworking the story
with Lucas.[3] Boam told Lucas that Indiana should find his father in
the middle of the story. "Given the fact that it's the third film in
the series, you couldn't just end with them obtaining the object.
That's how the first two films ended," he said, "So I thought, let
them lose the Grail, and let the father–son relationship be the main
point. It's an archaeological search for Indy's own identity and
coming to accept his father is more what it's about [than the quest
for the Grail]."[9] Boam said he felt there was not enough character
development in the previous films.[2] In Boam's first draft, dated
September 1987, the film is set in 1939. The prologue has Indiana
retrieving an Aztec relic for a professor in Mexico and features the
circus train. The leader of the Brotherhood of the Cruciform Sword is
Kemal, a Hatayan secret agent who allies with the Nazis because he
wants the Grail for the glory of his country. He shoots Henry and dies
drinking from the wrong chalice. Henry and Elsa (who is described as
having dark hair) were searching for the Grail on behalf of the
Chandler Foundation. The Grail Knight battles Indiana on horseback,
while Vogel is crushed by a boulder when stealing the Grail.[3]

Boam's February 1988 rewrite utilized many of Connery's comic
suggestions. It included the prologue that was eventually filmed;
Lucas had to convince Spielberg to show Indiana as a boy because of
the mixed response to Empire of the Sun, which was about a young boy.
[2] Spielberg—who was later awarded the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award
—had the idea of making Indiana a Boy Scout.[16] Indiana's mother,
named Margaret in this version, dismisses Indiana when he returns home
with the Cross of Coronado, while his father is on a long distance
call. Walter Chandler of the Chandler Foundation features, but is not
the main villain; he plunges to his death in the tank. Elsa shoots
Henry, then dies drinking from the wrong Grail, and Indiana rescues
his father from falling into the chasm while grasping for the Grail.
Vogel is beheaded by the traps guarding the Grail, while Kemal tries
to blow up the temple during a comic fight in which gunpowder is
repeatedly lit and extinguished. Leni Riefenstahl appears at the Nazi
rally.[3] Boam's revision the following month showed Henry causing the
seagulls to strike the plane. Tom Stoppard rewrote the script by May
8, 1988 under the pen name Barry Watson.[3] He polished much of the
dialogue,[10] and created the character of "Panama Hat" to link the
segments of the prologue featuring the young and adult Indianas.
Stoppard also renamed Kemal to Kazim and Chandler to Donovan, and made
Donovan shoot Henry.[3]

[edit] Filming

The tank chase was filmed in Almería, SpainPrincipal photography began
on May 16, 1988 in the Tabernas Desert in the Almería province of
Spain. Spielberg originally had planned the chase to be a short
sequence shot over two days, but he drew up storyboards to make the
scene an action-packed centerpiece.[5] Thinking he would not surpass
the truck chase from Raiders of the Lost Ark (because the truck was
much faster than the tank), he felt this sequence should be more story-
based and needed to show Indiana and Henry helping each other. He
later said he had more fun storyboarding the sequence than filming it.
[4] The second unit had begun filming two weeks before.[1] After
approximately ten days the production moved to Bellas Artes to film
the scenes set in the Sultan of Hatay's palace. Cabo de Gata-Níjar
Natural Park was used for the road, tunnel and beach sequence in which
birds strike the plane. The Spanish portion of shoot wrapped on June
2, 1988 in Guadix, Granada with filming of Brody's capture at
İskenderun train station.[1] The filmmakers built a mosque near the
station for atmosphere, rather than adding it as a visual effect.[4]

Filming for the castle interiors took place from June 5 to 10, 1988 at
Elstree Studios, England. The fire was filmed last. On June 16, the
Royal Horticultural Society was used for the airport interiors.
Filming returned to Elstree the next day to capture the motorcycle
escape, continuing at the studio for interior scenes until July 18.
One day was spent at North Weald Airfield on June 29 to film Indiana
leaving for Venice.[1] Ford and Connery acted much of the Zeppelin
table conversation without trousers on because of the overheated set.
[11] Spielberg, Marshall and Kennedy interrupted the shoot to make a
plea to the Parliament of the United Kingdom to support the
economically "depressed" British studios. July 20–22 was spent filming
the temple interiors. The temple set, which took six weeks to build,
was supported on 80 feet of hydraulics and ten gimbals for use during
the earthquake scene. Resetting between takes took twenty minutes
while the hydraulics were put to their starting positions and the
cracks filled with plaster. The shot of the Grail falling to the
temple floor—causing the first crack to appear—was attempted on the
full-size set, but proved too difficult. Instead, crews built a
separate floor section that incorporated a pre-scored crack sealed
with plaster. It took several takes to throw the Grail from six feet
onto the right part of the crack.[4] July 25–26 was spent on night
shoots at Blenheim Palace for the Nazi rally.[1]

Filming resumed two days later at Elstree, where Spielberg swiftly
filmed the library, Portuguese freighter, and catacombs sequences.[1]
The steamship fight in the 1938 portion of the prologue was filmed in
three days on a sixty-by-forty-feet deck built on gimbals at Elstree.
A dozen dump tanks—each holding three hundred gallons (3000 lbs) of
water—were used in the scene.[4] Henry's house was filmed at Mill
Hill, London. Indiana and Kazim's fight in Venice in front of a ship's
propeller was filmed in a water tank at Elstree. Spielberg used a long
lens to make it appear the actors were closer to the propeller than
they really were.[1] Two days later, on August 4, another portion of
the boat chase was filmed at Tilbury Docks in Essex.[1] The shot of
the boats passing between two ships was achieved by first cabling the
ships off so they would be safe. The ships were moved together while
the boats passed between, close enough that one of the boats scraped
the sides of the ships. An empty speedboat containing dummies was
launched from a floating platform between the ships amid fire and
smoke that helped obscure the platform. The stunt was performed twice
because the boat landed too short of the camera in the first attempt.
[4] The following day, filming in England wrapped at the Royal Masonic
School in Rickmansworth, which doubled for Indiana's college (as it
had in Raiders of the Lost Ark).[1]

Al Khazneh was used for the entrance to the temple housing the Holy
GrailShooting in Venice took place on August 8.[1] For scenes such as
Indiana and Brody greeting Elsa, shots of the boat chase, and Kazim
telling Indiana where his father is,[4] Robert Watts gained control of
the Grand Canal from 7 am to 1 pm, sealing off tourists for as long as
possible. Cinematographer Douglas Slocombe positioned the camera to
ensure no satellite dishes would be visible.[1] San Barnaba di Venezia
served as the exterior to the library.[5] The next day, filming moved
to the ancient city of Petra, Jordan, which stood in for the temple
housing the Grail. The cast and crew became guests of King Hussein and
Queen Noor. The main cast completed their scenes that week, after 63
days of filming.[1]

The second unit filmed part of the 1912 segment of the prologue from
August 29 to September 3. The main unit began two days later with the
circus train sequence at Alamosa, Colorado. They filmed at Pagosa
Springs on September 7, and then at Cortez on September 10. From
September 14 to 16, filming of Indiana falling into the train
carriages took place in Los Angeles. The production then moved to
Arches National Park in Utah to shoot more of the opening. A house
near the park was used for the Jones family home.[1] The production
had intended to film at Mesa Verde National Park, but Native American
representatives had religious objections to its use.[4] When Spielberg
and editor Michael Kahn viewed a rough cut of the film in late 1988,
they felt it suffered from a lack of action. The motorcycle chase was
shot during post-production at Mount Tamalpais and Fairfax near
Skywalker Ranch. The closing shot of Indiana, Henry, Sallah and Brody
riding into the sunset was filmed in Texas in early 1989.[1][12]

[edit] Design
Mechanical effects supervisor George Gibbs said The Last Crusade was
the most difficult film of his career.[4] He visited a museum to
negotiate renting a small French World War I tank, but decided he
wanted to make one.[1] The tank was based on the Tank Mark VIII, which
was 36 feet and 28 tons. Gibbs built the tank over the framework of a
28-ton excavator and added seven ton tracks that were driven by two
automatic hydraulic pumps, each connected to a Range Rover V8 engine.
Gibbs built the tank from steel rather than aluminum or fiberglass
because it would allow the realistically suspensionless vehicle to
endure the rocky surfaces. Unlike its historical counterpart—which had
four side guns—the tank had a turret and two guns on its sides. It
took four months to build and was transported to Almería on a Short
Belfast plane and then a low loader truck.[4]

Composite photograph of the tank on locationThe tank broke down twice.
The motor arm in the distributor broke and a replacement had to be
sourced from Madrid. Then two of the valves in the device used to cool
the oil exploded, due to solder melting and mixing with the oil. It
was very hot in the tank, despite the installation of ten fans, and
the lack of suspension meant the driver was unable to stop shaking
during filming breaks.[4] The tank only moved at ten to twelve miles
per hour, which Vic Armstrong said made it difficult to film Indiana
riding a horse against the tank while making it appear faster.[1] A
smaller section of the tank's top made from aluminum and which used
rubber tracks was used for close-ups. It was built from a searchlight
trailer, weighed eight tons, and was towed by a four-wheel drive
truck. It had safety nets on each end to prevent injury to those
falling off.[4] A quarter-scale model by Gibbs was driven over a 50
foot cliff on location; Industrial Light and Magic created further
shots of the tank's destruction with models and miniatures.[20]

Michael Lantieri, mechanical effects supervisor for the 1912 scenes,
noted the difficulty in shooting the train sequence. "You can't just
stop a train," he said, "If it misses its mark, it takes blocks and
blocks to stop it and back up." Lantieri hid handles for the actors
and stuntmen to grab onto when leaping from carriage to carriage. The
carriage interiors shot at Universal Studios Hollywood were built on
tubes that inflated and deflated to create a rocking motion.[4] For
the close-up of the rhinoceros that strikes at (and misses) Indiana, a
foam and fiberglass animatronic was made in London. When Spielberg
decided he wanted it to move, the prop was sent to John Carl Buechler
in Los Angeles, who resculpted it over three days to blink, snarl,
snort and wiggle its ears. The giraffes were also created in London.
Because steam locomotives are very loud, Lantieri's crew would respond
to first assistant director David Tomblin's radioed directions by
making the giraffes nod or shake their heads to his questions, which
amused the crew.[20] For the villains' cars, Lantieri selected a 1912
Ford Model A and a 1914 Saxon, fitting each with a Ford Pinto V6
engine. Sacks of dust were hung under the cars to create a dustier
environment.[4]

Spielberg used doves for the seagulls that Henry scares into striking
the German plane because the real gulls used in the first take did not
fly.[5] In December 1988, Lucasfilm ordered 1000 disease-free gray
rats for the catacombs scenes from the company that supplied the
snakes and bugs for the previous films. Within five months, 5000 rats
had been bred for the sequence;[5] 1000 mechanical rats stood in for
those that were set on fire. Several thousand snakes of five breeds—
including a boa constrictor—were used for the train scene, in addition
to rubber ones onto which Phoenix could fall. The snakes would slither
from their crates, requiring the crew to dig through sawdust after
filming to find and return them. Two lions were used, which became
nervous because of the rocking motion and flickering lights.[4]

Costume designer Anthony Powell found it a challenge to create
Connery's costume because the script required the character to wear
the same clothes throughout. Powell thought about his own grandfather
and incorporated tweed suits and fishing hats. Powell felt it
necessary for Henry to wear glasses, but did not want to hide
Connery's eyes, so chose rimless ones. He could not find any suitable,
so he had them specially made. The Nazi costumes were genuine and were
found in Eastern Europe by Powell's co-designer Joanna Johnston, to
whom he gave research pictures and drawings for reference.[1]

Gibbs used Swiss army training planes for the German planes. He built
a device based on an internal combustion engine to simulate gunfire,
which was safer and less expensive than firing blanks.[20] Baking soda
was applied to Connery to create Henry's bullet wound. Vinegar was
applied to create the foaming effect as the water from the Grail
washes it away.[20]

[edit] Effects
Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) built an eight feet foam model of the
Zeppelin to complement shots of Ford and Connery climbing into the
biplane. A biplane model with a two-foot wingspan was used for the
shot of the biplane detaching. Stop motion animation was used for the
shot of the German fighter's wings breaking off as it crashes through
the tunnel. The tunnel was a 210 feet model that occupied 14 of ILM's
parking spaces for two months. It was built in eight-foot sections,
with hinges allowing each section to be opened to film through. Ford
and Connery were filmed against bluescreen; the sequence required
their car to have a dirty windscreen, but to make the integration
easier this was removed and later composited into the shot. Dust and
shadows were animated onto shots of the plane miniature to make it
appear as if it disturbed rocks and dirt before it exploded. Several
hundred tim-birds were used in the background shots of the seagulls
striking the other plane; for the closer shots, ILM dropped feather-
coated crosses onto the camera. These only looked convincing because
the scene's quick cuts merely required shapes that suggested gulls.
[20]

Indiana discovers a bridge hidden by forced perspective. Ford was
filmed in front of a bluescreen for the scene, which was completed by
a model of the bridge filmed against a matte paintingSpielberg devised
the three trials that guard the Grail.[2] For the first, the blades
under which Indiana ducks like a penitent man were a mix of practical
and miniature blades created by Gibbs and ILM. For the second trial,
in which Indiana spells "Iehovah" on stable stepping stones, it was
intended to have a tarantula crawl up Indiana after he mistakenly
steps on "J". This was filmed and deemed unsatisfactory, so ILM filmed
a stuntman hanging through a hole that appears in the floor, 30 feet
above a cavern. As this was dark, it did not matter that the matte
painting and models were rushed late in production. The third trial,
the leap of faith that Indiana makes over an apparently impassable
ravine after discovering a bridge hidden by forced perspective, was
created with a model bridge and painted backgrounds. This was cheaper
than building a full-size set. A puppet of Ford was used to create a
shadow on the 9-foot tall by 13-foot wide model because Ford had
filmed the scene against bluescreen, which did not incorporate the
shaft of light from the entrance.[20]

Spielberg wanted Donovan's death shown in one shot, so it would not
look like an actor having makeup applied between takes. Inflatable
pads were applied to Julian Glover's forehead and cheeks that made his
eyes seem to recede during the character's initial decomposing, as
well as a mechanical wig that grew his hair. The shot of Donovan's
death was created over three months by morphing together three puppets
of Donovan in separate stages of decay, a technique ILM mastered on
Willow (1988).[11] A fourth puppet was used for the decaying clothes,
because the puppet's torso mechanics had been exposed. Complications
arose because Allison Doody's double had not been filmed for the
latter two elements of the scene, so the background and hair from the
first shot had to be used throughout, with the other faces mapped over
it. Donovan's skeleton was hung on wires like a marionette; it
required several takes to film it crashing against the wall because
not all the pieces released upon impact.[20]

Ben Burtt designed the sound effects. He recorded chickens for the
sounds of the rats,[1] and digitally manipulated the noise made by a
Styrofoam cup for the castle fire. He rode in a biplane to record the
sounds for the dogfight sequence, and visited the demolition of a wind
turbine for the plane crashes.[20] Burtt wanted an echoing gunshot for
Donovan wounding Henry, so he fired a .357 Magnum in Skywalker Ranch's
underground car park, just as Lucas drove in.[1] A rubber balloon was
used for the earthquake tremors at the temple.[21] The Last Crusade
was released in selected theaters in the 70 mm Full-Field Sound
format, which allowed sounds to not only move from the front to the
rear of the theater, but also from side to side.[20]

Matte paintings of the Austrian castle and German airport were based
on real buildings; the Austrian castle was a small West German castle
that was made to look larger. Rain was created by filming granulated
Borax soap against black at high speed. It was only lightly double
exposed into the shots so it would not resemble snow. The lightning
was animated. The airport used was at San Francisco's Treasure Island,
which already had appropriate art deco architecture. ILM added a
control tower, Nazi banners, vintage automobiles and a sign stating
"Berlin Flughafen". The establishing shot of the Hatayan city at dusk
was created by filming silhouetted cutouts that were backlit and
obscured by smoke. Matte paintings were used for the sky and to give
the appearance of fill light in the shadows and rim light on the edges
of the buildings.[20]

[edit] Themes
Indiana's relationship with his estranged father is a common theme
found in other Spielberg films such as E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial and
Hook.[9]

The Last Crusade's exploration of fathers and sons coupled with its
use of religious imagery is comparable to two other 1989 films, Star
Trek V: The Final Frontier and Field of Dreams. Writing for The New
York Times, Caryn James felt the combination in these films reflected
New Age concerns, where the worship of God was equated to searching
for fathers. James felt neither Indiana or his father are preoccupied
with finding the Grail or defeating the evil Nazis, but finding a
professional respect for one another on their boys' own adventure.
James contrasted the Biblical destruction of the temple with the more
effective and quiet conversation between the Joneses at the end of the
film. James noted Indiana's mother is not in the prologue and stated
to have died by the events of the film.[22]

[edit] Cultural references
The 1912 prologue refers to events in the lives of Indiana's creators.
When Indiana cracks the bullwhip to defend himself against a lion, he
accidentally lashes and scars his chin. Ford gained this scar in a car
accident as a young man.[5] Indiana taking his nickname from his pet
Alaskan Malamute is a reference to the character being named after
Lucas's dog.[11] The train carriage Indiana enters is named "Doctor
Fantasy's Magic Caboose", which was the name producer Frank Marshall
used when performing magic tricks. Spielberg suggested the idea,
Marshall came up with the false-bottomed box through which Indiana
escapes,[7] and production designer Elliott Scott suggested the trick
be done in one take.[4] Spielberg intended the shot of Henry with his
umbrella—after he causes the bird strike on the German plane—to evoke
Ryan's Daughter.[11]

[edit] Release

[edit] Marketing
See also: Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (soundtrack)
The teaser trailer for The Last Crusade debuted in November 1988 with
Scrooged and The Naked Gun.[23] Rob MacGregor wrote the tie-in
novelization that was released in June 1989;[24] it sold enough copies
to be included on the New York Times Best Seller list.[25] MacGregor
went on to write the first six Indiana Jones prequel novels during the
1990s. Following the film's release, Ford donated Indiana's fedora and
jacket to the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of American
History.[26]

No toys were made to promote The Last Crusade; Indiana Jones "never
happened on the toy level", said Larry Carlat, senior editor of the
journal Children's Business. Rather, Lucasfilm promoted Indiana as a
lifestyle symbol, selling tie-in fedoras, shirts, jackets and watches.
[27] Two video games based on the film were released by LucasArts in
1989: Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade: The Graphic Adventure and
Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade: The Action Game. A third game was
produced by Taito and released in 1991 for the Nintendo Entertainment
System. Ryder Windham wrote another novelization, released in April
2008 by Scholastic, to coincide with the release of Indiana Jones and
the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008). Hasbro released toys based on
The Last Crusade in July 2008.[28]

[edit] Box office
Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade was released in North America on
May 24, 1989 in 2,327 theaters, earning $29,355,021 in its opening
weekend.[29] This was the third-highest opening weekend of 1989,
behind Ghostbusters II and Batman.[30] Its opening day gross of
$11,181,429 was the first time a film had made over $10 million on its
first day. It broke the record for the best six-day performance, with
almost $47 million, added another record with $77 million after twelve
days, and $100 million in nineteen days. It grossed $195.7 million by
the end of the year and $450 million worldwide by March 1990.[1] In
France, the film broke a record by selling a million admissions within
two and a half weeks.[26]

The film eventually grossed $197,171,806 in North America and $277
million internationally, for a worldwide total of $474,171,806. At the
time of its release, The Last Crusade was the 11th highest-grossing
film of all time.[29] Despite competition from Batman, The Last
Crusade became the highest-grossing movie worldwide in 1989.[31] In
North America, Batman took top position.[30] Behind Kingdom of the
Crystal Skull and Raiders of the Lost Ark, The Last Crusade is the
third-highest grossing Indiana Jones film in North America.[32]

[edit] Reviews
The Last Crusade opened to mixed reviews. It was panned by Andrew
Sarris in The New York Observer, David Denby in New York magazine,
Stanley Kauffmann in The New Republic and Georgia Brown in The Village
Voice.[1] Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader called the film
"soulless".[33] The Washington Post reviewed the film twice; Hal
Hinson's review on the day of the film's release was negative,
describing it as "nearly all chases and dull exposition". Although he
praised Ford and Connery, he felt the film's exploration of Indiana's
character took away his mystery and that Spielberg should not have
tried to mature his storytelling.[34] Two days later, Desson Thomson
published a positive review praising the film's adventure and action,
as well as the thematic depth of the father–son relationship.[35]
Joseph McBride of Variety observed the "Cartoonlike Nazi villains of
Raiders have been replaced by more genuinely frightening Nazis led by
Julian Glover and Michael Byrne," and found the moment where Indiana
meets Hitler "chilling".[36] In his biography of Spielberg, McBride
added the film was less "racist" than its predecessors.[9]

Peter Travers of Rolling Stone said the film was "the wildest and
wittiest Indy of them all". Richard Corliss of Time and David Ansen of
Newsweek praised it, as did Vincent Canby of The New York Times.[1]
"Though it seems to have the manner of some magically reconstituted B-
movie of an earlier era, The Last Crusade is an endearing original,"
Canby wrote, deeming the revelation Indiana had a father he was not
proud of to be a "comic surprise". Canby believed that while the film
did not match the previous two in its pacing, it still had
"hilariously off-the-wall sequences" such as the circus train chase.
He also said that Spielberg was maturing by focusing on the father–son
relationship,[37] a call echoed by McBride in Variety.[36] Roger Ebert
praised the scene depicting Indiana as a Boy Scout with the Cross of
Coronado; he compared it to the "style of illustration that appeared
in the boys' adventure magazines of the 1940s", saying that Spielberg
"must have been paging through his old issues of Boys' Life
magazine... the feeling that you can stumble over astounding
adventures just by going on a hike with your Scout troop. Spielberg
lights the scene in the strong, basic colors of old pulp
magazines."[38] The Hollywood Reporter felt Connery and Ford deserved
Academy Award nominations.[1]

The film was evaluated positively after its release. Internet reviewer
James Berardinelli wrote that while the film did not reach the heights
of Raiders of the Lost Ark, it "[avoided] the lows of The Temple of
Doom. A fitting end to the original trilogy, Indiana Jones and the
Last Crusade captures some of the sense of fun that infused the first
movie while using the addition of Sean Connery to up the comedic ante
and provide a father/son dynamic."[39] Neil Smith of the BBC praised
the action, but said the drama and comedy between the Joneses was more
memorable. He noted, "The emphasis on the Jones boys means Julian
Glover's venal villain and Alison Doody's treacherous beauty are
sidelined, while the climax [becomes] one booby-trapped tomb too
many."[40] Based on 55 reviews listed by Rotten Tomatoes, 89% of
critics praised The Last Crusade, giving it an average score of 7.9/10.
[41] Metacritic calculated an average rating of 65/100, based on 14
reviews.[42]

[edit] Impact

Sean Connery received Golden Globe and BAFTA nominations for his
performanceThe film won the Academy Award for Best Sound Editing; it
had also received nominations for Best Original Score and Best Sound,
but lost to The Little Mermaid and Glory respectively. Sean Connery
received a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor.
[43] Connery and the visual and sound effects teams were also
nominated at the 43rd British Academy Film Awards.[44] The Last
Crusade won the 1990 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation,[45]
and was nominated for Best Motion Picture Drama at the Young Artist
Awards.[46] John Williams' score won a BMI Award, and was nominated
for a Grammy Award.[47]

The prologue depicting Indiana in his youth inspired Lucas to create
The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles television show, which featured
Sean Patrick Flanery as the young adult Indiana and Corey Carrier as
the 8–10 year-old Indiana.[12] The 13-year-old incarnation played by
Phoenix in the film was the focus of a Young Indiana Jones series of
young adult novels that began in 1990;[48] by the ninth novel, the
series had become a tie-in to the television show.[49] German author
Wolfgang Hohlbein revisited the 1912 prologue in one of his novels, in
which Indiana encounters the lead grave robber—whom Hohlbein christens
Jake—in 1943.[50] The film's ending begins the 1995 comic series
Indiana Jones and the Spear of Destiny, which moves forward to depict
Indiana and his father searching for the Holy Lance in Ireland in 1945.
[51] Spielberg intended to have Connery cameo as Henry in Kingdom of
the Crystal Skull (2008), but Connery turned it down as he had retired.
[52]

[edit] References
Rinzler, J.W.; Laurent Bouzereau (2008). The Complete Making of
Indiana Jones. Random House. ISBN 9780091926618.
http://shop.indianajones.com/catalog/product.xml?product_id=417814;category_id=408224.
Joseph McBride (1997). Steven Spielberg: A Biography. New York City:
Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-19177-0.
Douglas Brode (1995). The Films of Steven Spielberg. Citadel. ISBN
0-8065-1540-6.
"Bibliography". TheRaider.net. http://www.theraider.net/films/crusade/making_6_bibliography.php.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa Rinzler,
Bouzereau, "The Professionals: May 1988 to May 1989", p. 204 - 229.
^ a b c d e f "The Hat Trick". TheRaider.net.
http://www.theraider.net/films/crusade/making_1_thehattrick.php.
Retrieved on 2009-02-06.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Rinzler, Bouzereau, "The Monkey
King: July 1984 to May 1988", p. 184 - 203.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s "Filming Family Bonds".
TheRaider.net. http://www.theraider.net/films/crusade/making_3_production.php.
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^ a b c d e f g h i j k (DVD) Indiana Jones: Making the Trilogy.
Paramount Pictures. 2003.
^ a b c d e f "Casting the Crusaders". TheRaider.net.
http://www.theraider.net/films/crusade/making_2_casting.php. Retrieved
on 2009-02-06.
^ a b "Last Crusade Opening Salvo". Empire: pp. 98–99. October 2006.
^ a b Richard Corliss; Elaine Dutka; Denise Worrell; Jane Walker
(1989-05-29). "What's Old Is Gold: A Triumph for Indy". Time.
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,957848-1,00.html.
Retrieved on 2009-01-06.
^ a b c d e f g McBride, "An Awfully Big Adventure", p. 379 – 413
^ a b c "Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade: An Oral History". Empire.
2008-05-08. http://www.empireonline.com/indy/day17/default.asp.
Retrieved on 2008-05-08.
^ a b c d e "Crusade: Viewing Guide". Empire: pp. 101. October 2006.
^ a b c Marcus Hearn (2005). The Cinema of George Lucas. New York
City: Harry N. Abrams Inc. pp. 159–165. ISBN 0-8109-4968-7.
^ "Deleted Scenes". TheRaider.net. http://www.theraider.net/films/crusade/deleted_scenes.php.
Retrieved on 2009-02-06.
^ Ettore Mariotti (2003-04-03). "Michael Sheard interview".
TheRaider.net. http://www.theraider.net/features/interviews/michael_sheard.php.
Retrieved on 2009-02-05.
^ (2003). The Stunts of Indiana Jones (DVD). Paramount Pictures.
^ a b c Susan Royal (December 1989). "Always: An Interview with Steven
Spielberg". Premiere: pp. 45–56.
^ Nancy Griffin (June 1988). "Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade".
Premiere.
^ McBride, p.318
^ David Hughes (November 2005). "The Long Strange Journey of Indiana
Jones IV". Empire: pp. 131.
^ a b c d e f g h i j "A Quest's Completion". TheRaider.net.
http://www.theraider.net/films/crusade/making_4_postproduction.php.
Retrieved on 2009-02-06.
^ (2003). The Sound of Indiana Jones (DVD). Paramount Pictures.
^ Caryn James (1989-07-09). "It's a New Age For Father–Son
Relationships". The New York Times.
http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DEEDE143AF93AA35754C0A96F948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all.
Retrieved on 2009-02-18.
^ Aljean Harmetz (1989-01-18). "Makers of 'Jones' Sequel Offer Teasers
and Tidbits". The New York Times.
^ Rob MacGregor (September 1989). Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade.
Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0-345-36161-5.
http://www.randomhouse.com/rhpg/catalog/display.pperl?isbn=9780345361615.
^ Staff (1989-06-11). "Paperback Best Sellers: June 11, 1989". The New
York Times.
^ a b "Apotheosis". TheRaider.net. http://www.theraider.net/films/crusade/making_5_apotheosis.php.
Retrieved on 2009-02-06.
^ Aljean Harmetz (1989-06-14). "Movie Merchandise: The Rush Is On".
The New York Times.
http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE2D71F31F937A25755C0A96F948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all.
Retrieved on 2009-02-12.
^ Edward Douglas (2008-02-17). "Hasbro Previews G.I. Joe, Hulk, Iron
Man, Indy & Clone Wars". Superhero Hype!. http://www.superherohype.com/news/topnews.php?id=6807.
Retrieved on 2008-02-17.
^ a b "Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade". Box Office Mojo.
http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=indianajonesandthelastcrusade.htm.
Retrieved on 2009-01-06.
^ a b "1989 Domestic Grosses". Box Office Mojo.
http://www.boxofficemojo.com/yearly/chart/?yr=1989&p=.htm. Retrieved
on 2009-01-06.
^ "1989 Worldwide Grosses". Box Office Mojo.
http://www.boxofficemojo.com/yearly/chart/?view2=worldwide&yr=1989&p=.htm.
Retrieved on 2009-01-06.
^ "Indiana Jones". Box Office Mojo. http://www.boxofficemojo.com/franchises/chart/?id=indianajones.htm.
Retrieved on 2009-01-06.
^ Jonathan Rosenbaum. "Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade". Chicago
Reader. http://onfilm.chicagoreader.com/movies/capsules/4529_INDIANA_JONES_AND_THE_LAST_CRUSADE.
Retrieved on 2009-01-07.
^ Hal Hinson (1989-05-24). "Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade". The
Washington Post.
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/movies/videos/indianajonesandthelastcrusadepg13hinson_a0a93b.htm.
Retrieved on 2009-02-05.
^ Desson Thomson (1989-05-26). "Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade".
The Washington Post.
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/movies/videos/indianajonesandthelastcrusadepg13howe_a0b214.htm.
Retrieved on 2009-02-05.
^ a b Joseph McBride (1989-05-24). "Indiana Jones and the Last
Crusade". Variety. http://www.variety.com/review/VE1117791934.html?categoryid=31&cs=1.
Retrieved on 2009-02-23.
^ Vincent Canby (1989-06-18). "Spielberg's Elixir Shows Signs Of
Mature Magic". The New York Times.
http://movies.nytimes.com/mem/movies/review.html?_r=2&res=950DEFDB1139F93BA25755C0A96F948260&scp=6&sq=Indiana%20Jones%20and%20the%20Last%20Crusade&st=cse.
Retrieved on 2009-02-05.
^ Roger Ebert (1989-05-24). "Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade".
Chicago Sun-Times. http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/19890524/REVIEWS/905240301/1023.
Retrieved on 2008-01-06.
^ James Berardinelli. "Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade". ReelViews.
http://www.reelviews.net/php_review_template.php?identifier=393.
Retrieved on 2009-01-07.
^ Neil Smith (2002-01-08). "Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade".
bbc.co.uk. http://www.bbc.co.uk/films/2002/01/08/indiana_jones_and_the_last_crusade_1989_review.shtml.
Retrieved on 2009-02-05.
^ "Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade". Rotten Tomatoes.
http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/indiana_jones_and_the_last_crusade/.
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^ "Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade". Metacritic.
http://www.metacritic.com/video/titles/indianajoneslastcrusade.
Retrieved on 2008-01-06.
^ Tom O'Neil (2008-05-08). "Will 'Indiana Jones,' Steven Spielberg and
Harrison Ford come swashbuckling back into the awards fight?". Los
Angeles Times. http://goldderby.latimes.com/awards_goldderby/2008/05/will-indiana-jo.html.
Retrieved on 2008-05-08.
^ "Film Nominations 1989". British Academy of Film and Television
Arts. http://www.bafta.org/awards/film/nominations/?year=1989.
Retrieved on 2009-02-05.
^ "1990 Hugo Awards". Thehugoawards.org. http://www.thehugoawards.org/?page_id=30.
Retrieved on 2009-02-05.
^ "Eleventh Annual Youth in Film Awards 1988-1989".
Youngartistawards.org. http://www.youngartistawards.org/pastnoms11.htm.
Retrieved on 2009-02-05.
^ "John Williams" (PDF). The Gorfaine/Schwartz Agency, Inc.
http://www.gsamusic.com/Composers/WLLMS-JN.pdf.
^ William McCay (1990). Young Indiana Jones and the Plantation
Treasure. Random House. ISBN 0-679-80579-6.
^ Les Martin (1993). Young Indiana Jones and the Titanic Adventure.
Random House. ISBN 0-679-84925-4.
^ Wolfgang Hohlbein (1991). Indiana Jones und das Verschwundene Volk.
Goldmann Verlag. ISBN 3-442-41028-2.
^ Elaine Lee (w), Dan Spiegle (p). Indiana Jones and the Spear of
Destiny (4) (April to July 1995), Dark Horse Comics
^ Lucasfilm (2007-06-07). "The Indiana Jones Cast Expands".
IndianaJones.com. http://www.indianajones.com/site/index.html?deeplink=news/n13.
Retrieved on 2009-02-15.

[edit] External links
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Indiana Jones
and the Last Crusade
Official website
Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade at the Internet Movie Database
Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade at Allmovie
Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade at Rotten Tomatoes
Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade at Box Office Mojo
Review of Chris Columbus's first draft

Preceded by
See No Evil, Hear No Evil Box office number-one films of 1989 (USA)
May 29, 1989 – June 4, 1989 Succeeded by
Star Trek V: The Final Frontier
[show]v • d • eIndiana Jones franchise

Films Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981) · Temple of Doom (1984) · Last
Crusade (1989) · Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008) • future
development

Television The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles (1992–1996) (list of
episodes)

Video games Raiders of the Lost Ark (1982) · The Temple of Doom
(arcade) (1985) · Revenge of the Ancients (1987) · The Temple of Doom
(NES) (1988) · The Last Crusade (1990) · The Fate of Atlantis (1992) ·
The Iron Phoenix (canceled) · The Pinball Adventure (1993) · Greatest
Adventures (1994) · Desktop Adventures (1996) · The Infernal Machine
(1999) · The Emperor's Tomb (2003) · Lego Indiana Jones: The Original
Adventures (2008) · Staff of Kings (2009) · Lego Indiana Jones 2: The
Adventure Continues (2009)

Soundtracks Raiders of the Lost Ark · Temple of Doom · The Last
Crusade · Kingdom of the Crystal Skull

Other media Role-playing game · Comics · Other literature · Disneyland
and Tokyo DisneySea attraction · Disneyland Paris attraction · Stunt
show · Lego Indiana Jones · Nuking the fridge

Characters Indiana Jones · Marion Ravenwood · Sallah · Henry Jones,
Sr. · Mutt Williams

Artifacts Ark of the Covenant · Chachapoyan Fertility Idol · Holy
Grail · Crystal skull

Cast Harrison Ford · Karen Allen · Kate Capshaw · Alison Doody · Cate
Blanchett · Jonathan Ke Quan · Shia LaBeouf · Ray Winstone · John Hurt
· Sean Connery · Corey Carrier · Sean Patrick Flanery · George Hall ·
River Phoenix · John Rhys-Davies · Denholm Elliott · Julian Glover ·
Amrish Puri · Paul Freeman · Wolf Kahler · Igor Jijikine · Ronald
Lacey · Pat Roach · Michael Byrne · David Yip · Dan Aykroyd · Alfred
Molina · Philip Stone · Jim Broadbent

Crew George Lucas · Steven Spielberg · Frank Marshall · Kathleen
Kennedy · Robert Watts · Rick McCallum · Philip Kaufman · Lawrence
Kasdan · Willard Huyck · Gloria Katz · Menno Meyjes · Jeffrey Boam ·
Jeff Nathanson · David Koepp · Douglas Slocombe · Janusz Kamiński ·
Vic Armstrong · Michael Kahn · John Williams · Ben Burtt · Drew
Struzan · Dan Bradley · Jim Steranko · Deborah Nadoolman Landis ·
Norman Reynolds · Guy Hendrix Dyas · Richard Edlund · Dennis Muren

[show]v • d • eFilms directed by Steven Spielberg

1970s The Sugarland Express (1974) · Jaws (1975) · Close Encounters of
the Third Kind (1977) · 1941 (1979)

1980s Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981) · E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial
(1982) · Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984) · The Color
Purple (1985) · Empire of the Sun (1987) · Indiana Jones and the Last
Crusade (1989) · Always (1989)

1990s Hook (1991) · Jurassic Park (1993) · Schindler's List (1993) ·
The Lost World: Jurassic Park (1997) · Amistad (1997) · Saving Private
Ryan (1998)

2000s A.I. Artificial Intelligence (2001) · Minority Report (2002) ·
Catch Me If You Can (2002) · The Terminal (2004) · War of the Worlds
(2005) · Munich (2005) · Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal
Skull (2008)

2010s The Adventures of Tintin: Secret of the Unicorn (2011)

See also Firelight (1964) · Amblin' (1968) · Duel (1971) · Kick The
Can (1983)
Filmography · Amblin Entertainment · DreamWorks · Shoah Foundation

[show]v • d • eGeorge Lucas filmography

1970s THX 1138 (1971) · American Graffiti (1973) · Star Wars Episode
IV: A New Hope (1977)

1990s Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace (1999)

2000s Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones (2002) · Star Wars
Episode III: Revenge of the Sith (2005)

Shorts Herbie (1966) · The Emperor (1967) · Electronic Labyrinth: THX
1138 4EB (1967)

Produced 1970s More American Graffiti (1979)

1980s Kagemusha (1980) · Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back
(1980) · Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981) · Body Heat (1981;
uncredited) · Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi (1983) · Twice
Upon a Time (1983) · Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984) ·
Latino (1985; uncredited) · Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters (1985) ·
Howard the Duck (1986) · Labyrinth (1986) · Captain EO (1986) · Star
Tours (1987) · The Land Before Time (1988) · Tucker: The Man and His
Dream (1988) · Powaqqatsi (1988) · Willow (1988) · Indiana Jones and
the Last Crusade (1989)

1990s The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles (TV series) (1992) ·
Radioland Murders (1994)

2000s Star Wars: Clone Wars (TV series) (2003) · Indiana Jones and the
Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008) · Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008)
· Star Wars: The Clone Wars (TV series) (2008)

2010s Red Tails (2010) · Star Tours II (TBA) · Star Wars (TV series)
(TBA)

Related American Zoetrope · Lucasfilm · LucasArts · Skywalker Ranch ·
Skywalker Sound · Tomlinson Holman's eXperiment (THX) · Industrial
Light & Magic (ILM)

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Indiana_Jones_and_the_Last_Crusade"
Categories: English-language films | 1989 films | 1980s action films |
1980s adventure films | Films set in the 1910s | Films set in the
1930s | Holy Grail | Hugo Award Winner for Best Dramatic Presentation
| Indiana Jones films | Sequel films | Films set in Turkey | Films set
in Venice | Films set in Utah | Films set in Austria | Films shot in
Utah | Nazi Germany in fiction | Films with Nazi Occultism | Adolf
Hitler in fictionViewsArticle Discussion Edit this page History

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller-Urey_experiment

Help us improve Wikipedia by supporting it financially.Miller–Urey
experiment

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Miller-Urey experiment)
Jump to: navigation, search

The experimentThe Miller–Urey experiment[1] (or Urey–Miller experiment)
[2] was an experiment that simulated hypothetical conditions thought
at the time to be present on the early Earth, and tested for the
occurrence of chemical evolution. Specifically, the experiment tested
Soviet scientist Alexander Oparin's and J. B. S. Haldane's hypothesis
that conditions on the primitive Earth favored chemical reactions that
synthesized organic compounds from inorganic precursors. Considered to
be the classic experiment on the origin of life, it was conducted in
1952[1] and published in 1953 by Stanley Miller and Harold Urey at the
University of Chicago.[3][4][5]

In 2008[6], a re-analysis of Miller's archived solutions from the
original experiments showed 22 amino acids rather than 5 were actually
created in one of the apparatus used.[7]

Contents [hide]
1 Experiment and interpretation
2 Chemistry of experiment
3 Other experiments
4 Earth's early atmosphere
5 Recent related studies

6 See also
7 References
8 External links

[edit] Experiment and interpretation
The experiment used water (H2O), methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), and
hydrogen (H2). The chemicals were all sealed inside a sterile array of
glass tubes and flasks connected in a loop, with one flask half-full
of liquid water and another flask containing a pair of electrodes. The
liquid water was heated to induce evaporation, sparks were fired
between the electrodes to simulate lightning through the atmosphere
and water vapor, and then the atmosphere was cooled again so that the
water could condense and trickle back into the first flask in a
continuous cycle.

At the end of one week of continuous operation, Miller and Urey
observed that as much as 10–15% of the carbon within the system was
now in the form of organic compounds. Two percent of the carbon had
formed amino acids that are used to make proteins in living cells,
with glycine as the most abundant. Sugars, lipids, and some of the
building blocks for nucleic acids were also formed.

In an interview, Stanley Miller stated: "Just turning on the spark in
a basic pre-biotic experiment will yield 11 out of 20 amino acids."[8]

As observed in all consequent experiments, both left-handed (L) and
right-handed (D) optical isomers were created in a racemic mixture.

[edit] Chemistry of experiment
It is known that at first step in reaction mixture forms hydrogen
cyanide (HCN), formaldehyde [9] [10] and other active intermediate
compounds (acetylene, cyanoacetylene, etc.):

CO2 → CO + [O] (atomic oxygen)
CH4 + 2[O] → CH2O + H2O
CO + NH3 → HCN + H2O
CH4 + NH3 → HCN + 3H2 (BMA process)
These compounds then react with the formation of aminoacids (Strecker
synthesis) and other biomolecules:

CH2O + HCN + NH3 → NH2-CH2-CN + H2O
NH2-CH2-CN + 2H2O → NH3 + NH2-CH2-COOH (glycine)

[edit] Other experiments
This experiment inspired many others. In 1961, Juan Oró found that the
nucleotide base adenine could be made from hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and
ammonia in a water solution. His experiment produced a large amount of
adenine, which molecules were formed from 5 molecules of HCN.[11]
Also, many amino acids are formed from HCN and ammonia under these
conditions.[12] Experiments conducted later showed that the other RNA
and DNA nucleobases could be obtained through simulated prebiotic
chemistry with a reducing atmosphere.[13]

There also had been similar electric discharge experiments related to
the origin of life contemporaneous with Miller–Urey. An article in The
New York Times (March 8, 1953:E9), titled "Looking Back Two Billion
Years" describes the work of Wollman (William) M. MacNevin at Ohio
State University, before the Miller Science paper was published in May
1953. MacNevin was passing 100,000 volt sparks through methane and
water vapor and produced "resinous solids" that were "too complex for
analysis." The article describes other early earth experiments being
done by MacNevin. It is not clear if he ever published any of these
results in the primary scientific literature.

K. A. Wilde submitted a paper to Science on December 15, 1952, before
Miller submitted his paper to the same journal on February 14, 1953.
Wilde's paper was published on July 10, 1953.[14] Wilde used voltages
up to only 600 V on a binary mixture of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water
in a flow system. He observed only small amounts of carbon dioxide
reduction to carbon monoxide, and no other significant reduction
products or newly formed carbon compounds. Other researchers were
studying UV-photolysis of water vapor with carbon monoxide. They have
found that various alcohols, aldehydes and organic acids were
synthesized in reaction mixture [15].

More recent experiments by chemist Jeffrey Bada at Scripps Institution
of Oceanography (in La Jolla, CA) were similar to those performed by
Miller. However, Bada noted that in current models of early Earth
conditions, carbon dioxide and nitrogen (N2) create nitrites, which
destroy amino acids as fast as they form. However, the early Earth may
have had significant amounts of iron and carbonate minerals able to
neutralize the effects of the nitrites. When Bada performed the Miller-
type experiment with the addition of iron and carbonate minerals, the
products were rich in amino acids. This suggests the origin of
significant amounts of amino acids may have occurred on Earth even
with an atmosphere containing carbon dioxide and nitrogen.[16]

[edit] Earth's early atmosphere
Some evidence suggests that Earth's original atmosphere might have
contained fewer of the reducing molecules than was thought at the time
of the Miller–Urey experiment. There is abundant evidence of major
volcanic eruptions 4 billion years ago, which would have released
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and sulfur dioxide
(SO2) into the atmosphere. Experiments using these gases in addition
to the ones in the original Miller–Urey experiment have produced more
diverse molecules. The experiment created a mixture that was racemic
(containing both L and D enantiomers) and experiments since have shown
that "in the lab the two versions are equally likely to appear.[17]
However, in nature, L amino acids dominate; later experiments have
confirmed disproportionate amounts of L or D oriented enantiomers are
possible.[18]

Originally it was thought that the primitive secondary atmosphere
contained mostly ammonia and methane. However, it is likely that most
of the atmospheric carbon was CO2 with perhaps some CO and the
nitrogen mostly N2. In practice gas mixtures containing CO, CO2, N2,
etc. give much the same products as those containing CH4 and NH3 so
long as there is no O2. The hydrogen atoms come mostly from water
vapor. In fact, in order to generate aromatic amino acids under
primitive earth conditions it is necessary to use less hydrogen-rich
gaseous mixtures. Most of the natural amino acids, hydroxyacids,
purines, pyrimidines, and sugars have been produced in variants of the
Miller experiment.[19]

More recent results may question these conclusions. The University of
Waterloo and University of Colorado conducted simulations in 2005 that
indicated that the early atmosphere of Earth could have contained up
to 40 percent hydrogen—implying a possibly much more hospitable
environment for the formation of prebiotic organic molecules. The
escape of hydrogen from Earth's atmosphere into space may have
occurred at only one percent of the rate previously believed based on
revised estimates of the upper atmosphere's temperature.[20] One of
the authors, Owen Toon notes: "In this new scenario, organics can be
produced efficiently in the early atmosphere, leading us back to the
organic-rich soup-in-the-ocean concept... I think this study makes the
experiments by Miller and others relevant again." Outgassing
calculations using a chondritic model for the early earth complement
the Waterloo/Colorado results in re-establishing the importance of the
Miller–Urey experiment.[21]

However, when oxygen gas is added to this mixture, no organic
molecules are formed. Critics of the Miller–Urey hypothesis point out
recent research that shows the presence of uranium in sediments dated
to 3.7 Ga and indicates it was transported in solution by oxygenated
water (otherwise it would have precipitated out).[22] These critics
argue that this presence of oxygen precludes the formation of
prebiotic molecules via a Miller–Urey-like scenario, attempting to
invalidate the hypothesis of abiogenesis. However, the authors of the
paper are arguing that this presence of oxygen merely evidences the
existence of photosynthetic organisms 3.7 Ga ago (a date about 200 Ma
earlier than previous estimates[23]) a conclusion which while pushing
back the time frame in which Miller–Urey reactions and abiogenesis
could potentially have occurred, would not preclude them. Though there
is somewhat controversial evidence for very small (less than 0.1%)
amounts of oxygen in the atmosphere almost as old as Earth's oldest
rocks, the authors are not in any way arguing for the existence of an
oxygen-rich atmosphere any earlier than previously thought, and they
state: ". . . In fact most evidence suggests that oxygenic
photosynthesis was present during time periods from which there is
evidence for a non-oxygenic atmosphere".[22]

Conditions similar to those of the Miller–Urey experiments are present
in other regions of the solar system, often substituting ultraviolet
light for lightning as the energy source for chemical reactions. The
Murchison meteorite that fell near Murchison, Victoria, Australia in
1969 was found to contain over 90 different amino acids, nineteen of
which are found in Earth life. Comets and other icy outer-solar-system
bodies are thought to contain large amounts of complex carbon
compounds (such as tholins) formed by these processes, darkening
surfaces of these bodies.[24] The early Earth was bombarded heavily by
comets, possibly providing a large supply of complex organic molecules
along with the water and other volatiles they contributed. This has
been used to infer an origin of life outside of Earth: the panspermia
hypothesis.

[edit] Recent related studies
In recent years, studies have been made of the amino acid composition
of the products of "old" areas in "old" genes, defined as those that
are found to be common to organisms from several widely separated
species, assumed to share only the last universal ancestor (LUA) of
all extant species. These studies found that the products of these
areas are enriched in those amino acids that are also most readily
produced in the Miller–Urey experiment. This suggests that the
original genetic code was based on a smaller number of amino acids –
only those available in prebiotic nature – than the current one.[25]

In 2008, a group of scientists examined 11 vials left over from
Miller's experiments of the early 1950s. In addition to the classic
experiment, reminiscent of Charles Darwin's envisioned "warm little
pond", Miller had also performed more experiments, including one with
conditions similar to those of volcanic eruptions. This experiment had
a nozzle spraying a jet of steam at the spark discharge. By using high-
performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry, the group
found more organic molecules than Miller had. Interestingly, they
found that the volcano-like experiment had produced the most organic
molecules, 22 amino acids, 5 amines and many hydroxylated molecules,
which could have been formed by hydroxyl radicals produced by the
electrified steam. The group suggested that volcanic island systems
became rich in organic molecules in this way, and that the presence of
carbonyl sulfide there could have helped these molecules form peptides.
[6][26]

[edit] See also
Strecker synthesis, amino acid synthesis from aldehydes, ammonia, and
HCN.
Butlerov's reaction, formation of various sugars (like ribose) from
formaldehyde.
Abiogenesis, the study of how life on Earth emerged from inanimate
organic and inorganic molecules.

[edit] References
^ Hill HG, Nuth JA (2003). "The catalytic potential of cosmic dust:
implications for prebiotic chemistry in the solar nebula and other
protoplanetary systems". Astrobiology 3 (2): 291–304. doi:
10.1089/153110703769016389. PMID 14577878.
^ Balm SP, Hare JP, Kroto HW (1991). "The analysis of comet mass
spectrometric data". Space Science Reviews 56: 185–9. doi:10.1007/
BF00178408.
^ Miller, Stanley L. (May 1953). "Production of Amino Acids Under
Possible Primitive Earth Conditions". Science 117: 528. doi:10.1126/
science.117.3046.528. PMID 13056598. http://www.issol.org/miller/miller1953.pdf.
^ Miller, Stanley L.; Harold C. Urey (July 1959). "Organic Compound
Synthesis on the Primitive Earth". Science 130: 245. doi:10.1126/
science.130.3370.245. PMID 13668555. Miller states that he made "A
more complete analysis of the products" in the 1953 experiment,
listing additional results.
^ A. Lazcano, J. L. Bada (June 2004). "The 1953 Stanley L. Miller
Experiment: Fifty Years of Prebiotic Organic Chemistry". Origins of
Life and Evolution of Biospheres 33: 235–242. doi:10.1023/A:
1024807125069. PMID 14515862.
^ a b Johnson AP, Cleaves HJ, Dworkin JP, Glavin DP, Lazcano A, Bada
JL (October 2008). "The Miller volcanic spark discharge experiment".
Science 322 (5900): 404. doi:10.1126/science.1161527. PMID 18927386.
^ Catherine Brahic. "Volcanic lightning may have sparked life on Earth
— earth — 16 October 2008 — New Scientist Environment". NewScientist.
http://environment.newscientist.com/channel/earth/dn14966-volcanic-lightning-may-have-sparked-life-on-earth.html?feedId=online-news_rss20.
Retrieved on 2008-10-17.
^ http://www.accessexcellence.org/WN/NM/miller.php
^ http://www.geocities.com/capecanaveral/lab/2948/orgel.html Origin of
Life on Earth by Leslie E. Orgel
^ http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11860&page=85 Exploring
Organic Environments in the Solar System (2007)
^ Oró J, Kimball AP (August 1961). "Synthesis of purines under
possible primitive earth conditions. I. Adenine from hydrogen
cyanide". Archives of biochemistry and biophysics 94: 217–27. doi:
10.1016/0003-9861(61)90033-9. PMID 13731263.
^ Oró J, Kamat SS (April 1961). "Amino-acid synthesis from hydrogen
cyanide under possible primitive earth conditions". Nature 190: 442–3.
doi:10.1038/190442a0. PMID 13731262.
^ Oró J (1967). Fox SW. ed. Origins of Prebiological Systems and of
Their Molecular Matrices. New York Academic Press. pp. 137.
^ Wilde, Kenneth A.; Bruno J. Zwolinski and Ransom B. Parlin (July
1953). "The Reaction Occurring in CO2, 2O Mixtures in a High-Frequency
Electric Arc". Science 118 (3054): 43–44. doi:10.1126/science.
118.3054.43-a. PMID 13076175. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/citation/118/3054/43-a.
Retrieved on 2008-07-09.
^ Synthesis of organic compounds from carbon monoxide and water by UV
photolysis
^ Fox, Douglas (2007-03-28), "Primordial Soup's On: Scientists Repeat
Evolution's Most Famous Experiment", Scientific American, History of
Science (Scientific American Inc.),
http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=primordial-soup-urey-miller-evolution-experiment-repeated,
retrieved on 2008-07-09
^ "Right-handed amino acids were left behind", New Scientist (Reed
Business Information Ltd) (2554): 18, 2006-06-02,
http://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/mg19025545.200-righthanded-amino-acids-were-left-behind.html,
retrieved on 2008-07-09
^ Kojo, Shosuke; Hiromi Uchino, Mayu Yoshimura and Kyoko Tanaka
(October 2004). "Racemic D,L-asparagine causes enantiomeric excess of
other coexisting racemic D,L-amino acids during recrystallization: a
hypothesis accounting for the origin of L-amino acids in the
biosphere". Chemical Communications (19): 2146–2147. doi:10.1039/
b409941a. PMID 15467844.
^ "MICR 425: PHYSIOLOGY & BIOCHEMISTRY of MICROORGANISMS: The Origin
of Life". SIUC / College of Science.
http://www.science.siu.edu/microbiology/micr425/425Notes/14-OriginLife.html.
Retrieved on 2005-12-17.
^ "Early Earth atmosphere favorable to life: study". University of
Waterloo. http://newsrelease.uwaterloo.ca/news.php?id=4348. Retrieved
on 2005-12-17.
^ Fitzpatrick, Tony (2005). "Calculations favor reducing atmosphere
for early earth – Was Miller–Urey experiment correct?". Washington
University in St. Louis. http://news-info.wustl.edu/news/page/normal/5513.html.
Retrieved on 2005-12-17.
^ a b Rosing M.T. & Frei R. (2004). "U-rich Archaean sea-floor
sediments from Greenland—indications of >3700 Ma oxygenic
photosynthesis". Earth and Planetary Science Letters 217: 237–244. doi:
10.1016/S0012-821X(03)00609-5.
http://www.geol.ku.dk/pershps/robertfrei/WEB/Rosing%20and%20Frei%20-%20EPSL-2004-1.pdf.
^ Windows to the Universe (1999). "The slow build up of Oxygen in the
Earth's Atmosphere". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research.
http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/past/oxygen_buildup.html.
Retrieved on 2005-12-17.
^ Thompson WR, Murray BG, Khare BN, Sagan C (December 1987).
"Coloration and darkening of methane clathrate and other ices by
charged particle irradiation: applications to the outer solar system".
Journal of geophysical research 92 (A13): 14933–47. doi:10.1029/
JA092iA13p14933. PMID 11542127.
^ Brooks D.J., Fresco J.R., Lesk A.M. & Singh M. (01 Oct 2002).
"Evolution of amino acid frequencies in proteins over deep time:
inferred order of introduction of amino acids into the genetic code".
Molecular Biology and Evolution 19 (10): 1645–55. PMID 12270892.
http://mbe.oupjournals.org/cgi/content/full/19/10/1645.
^ "'Lost' Miller–Urey Experiment Created More Of Life's Building
Blocks". Science Daily. October 17, 2008.
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081016141411.htm.
Retrieved on 2008-10-18.

[edit] External links
A Production of Amino Acids Under Possible Primitive Earth Conditions
by Stanley L. Miller
A simulation of the Miller–Urey Experiment along with a video
Interview with Stanley Miller by Scott Ellis from CalSpace (UCSD)
Origin-Of-Life Chemistry Revisited: Reanalysis of famous spark-
discharge experiments reveals a richer collection of amino acids were
formed.
[show]v • d • eHistory of biology

Fields and disciplines Natural history • History of agriculture •
History of medicine • History of anatomy • History of zoology (through
1859)• History of plant systematics • History of geology • History of
paleontology • History of evolutionary thought • History of zoology
(1859–1912) • History of ecology • History of model organisms •
History of phycology • History of genetics • History of biochemistry •
History of agricultural science • History of molecular biology •
History of molecular evolution • History of immunology • History of
biotechnology

Institutions Rothamsted Experimental Station • Pasteur Institute • Max
Planck Society • Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory • Stazione Zoologica •
Marine Biological Laboratory • Rockefeller University • Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institute • Laboratory of Molecular Biology

Experiments Griffith's experiment • Miller-Urey experiment • Luria-
Delbrück experiment • Avery-MacLeod-McCarty experiment • Hershey-Chase
experiment • Meselson-Stahl experiment • Crick, Brenner et al.
experiment • Nirenberg and Matthaei experiment • Nirenberg and Leder
experiment

Publications On Generation and Corruption • Historia Plantarum • De
humani corporis fabrica • De motu cordis • Micrographia • Systema
Naturae • Philosophie Zoologique • Principles of Geology • Vestiges of
Creation • The Origin of Species • "Experiments on Plant
Hybridization" • The Descent of Man
• "The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian
Inheritance" • What is Life? • Genetics and the Origin of Species •
"Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease" • "Molecular structure of
Nucleic Acids"

Theories and concepts Spontaneous generation • Great chain of being •
Lamarckism • Darwinism • Germ theory of disease • One gene-one enzyme
hypothesis • Sequence hypothesis • Central dogma of molecular biology
• RNA world hypothesis

Influential figures Aristotle • Andreas Vesalius • William Harvey •
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek • Carolus Linnaeus • Georges-Louis Leclerc,
Comte de Buffon • Jean-Baptiste Lamarck • Alexander von Humboldt •
Charles Lyell • Charles Darwin • Alfred Russel Wallace • Gregor Mendel
• Louis Pasteur • Robert Koch • Ernst Haeckel • Ivan Pavlov • Jacques
Loeb • Hugo de Vries • E. B. Wilson • Thomas Hunt Morgan • Aleksandr
Oparin • Alexander Fleming • J. B. S. Haldane • Sewall Wright • R. A.
Fisher • Konrad Lorenz • Barbara McClintock • Theodosius Dobzhansky •
Ernst Mayr • George Beadle • Seymour Benzer • Rosalind Franklin •
James D. Watson • Francis Crick • Fred Sanger • Max Perutz • John
Kendrew • Sydney Brenner • Joshua Lederberg • Walter Gilbert • Kary
Mullis • Stephen Jay Gould • Lynn Margulis • Carl Woese • Jane
Goodall

Related topics History of science • History of medicine • Philosophy
of biology • Timeline of biology and organic chemistry • Natural
philosophy • Natural theology • Humboldtian science • Relationship
between religion and science • Eugenics • Human Genome Project •
History of creationism • History of the creation-evolution
controversy

[show]v • d • eOrigin of life

Hypercycle · Protobiont · Universal common descent · Last universal
ancestor · RNA world hypothesis · Iron-sulfur world theory · PAH world
hypothesis · Miller–Urey experiment · Panspermia

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller
%E2%80%93Urey_experiment"
Categories: Origin of life | Biology experiments | 1950s in science |
2008 in scienceViewsArticle Discussion Edit this page History Personal

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[dennyreno]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Miller

Help us improve Wikipedia by supporting it financially.Stanley Miller

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the American chemist. For the American artist of
the same name, see Stanley Mouse.
Stanley Lloyd Miller

Born March 7, 1930(1930-03-07)
Oakland, California, United States
Died May 20, 2007 (age 77)
National City, California, United States

Nationality United States
Fields Chemistry
Institutions University of Chicago
Doctoral advisor Harold Urey
Known for Abiogenesis
Stanley Lloyd Miller (March 7, 1930 - May 20, 2007) was an American
chemist and biologist who is known for his studies into the origin of
life, particularly the Miller-Urey experiment which demonstrated that
organic compounds can be created by fairly simple physical processes
from inorganic substances. The experiment used conditions then thought
to provide an approximate representation of those present on the
primordial Earth.

[edit] Life and career
Born in Oakland, California, he studied at University of California at
Berkeley (earning his B.S. in 1951) and then at University of Chicago
where he earned his Ph.D. in chemistry in 1954. While at Chicago,
Miller was a student of Harold Urey. [1]

Miller continued his research at California Institute of Technology
(1954-1955) and then joined the department of biochemistry at Columbia
University, New York where he worked for the next five years. He then
returned to California where he was an assistant professor
(1960-1962), associate professor (1962-1968), then full professor of
chemistry at University of California at San Diego (from 1968).

His work dealt with the origin of life (and he was considered a
pioneer in the field of exobiology), the natural occurrence of
clathrate hydrates, and general mechanisms of anesthesia. He was a
member of the National Academy of Science, and received the Oparin
Medal. He was a participant in the pioneering Miller-Urey experiment.
In the 1950s, Urey guessed that the early atmosphere of the Earth was
probably like the atmosphere now present on Jupiter --i.e., rich in
ammonia, methane, and hydrogen. Miller, working in his laboratory at
the University of Chicago, demonstrated that when exposed to an energy
source such as ultraviolet radiation, these compounds and water can
react to produce amino acids essential for the formation of living
matter. (Similar ideas had been suggested by Aleksandr Oparin in the
1920s.) Since then there have been objections that the early
environment was possibly not as reducing as Miller and Urey assumed
and Miller acknowledged this.[2]

In 2008, researchers found the apparatus that Miller used in his early
experiments and analyzed the material using more sensitive later
techniques. The experiments included previously unreported simulations
of other environments, such as gases released in volcanic eruptions.
The later analysis turned up more amino acids and other compounds of
interest.[3][4]

In 1828 Friedrich Wohler had showed that it is possible to synthesize
urea. As urea is an organic molecule, many at the time thought it
could only be made by living organisms. This led to recognition that
there is no obvious difference between a physically produced and an
organically produced molecule. Miller's experiment went slightly
further by showing that basic biomolecules can be formed through
simple physical processes, and that it was not impossible for the
first stages of abiogenesis to have occurred on the early earth.

[edit] References
^ Wade, Nicolas (May 23, 2007). "Stanley Miller, Who Examined Origins
of Life, Dies at 77", The New York Times.
^ "Stanley Lloyd Miller." Notable Scientists: From 1900 to the
Present. Gale Group, 2001.
^ Johnson AP, Cleaves HJ, Dworkin JP, Glavin DP, Lazcano A, Bada JL
(2008). "The Miller Volcanic Spark Discharge Experiment". Science 322
(5900): 404. doi:10.1126/science.1161527.
^ "Forgotten Experiment May Explain Origin of Life" Wired Blog Via
Yahoo News;"Volcanoes May Have Provided Sparks and Chemistry for First
Life" NASA Press Release

[edit] External links
'Lost' Miller-Urey experiment created more of life's building blocks
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Miller"
Categories: American chemists | American biologists | University of
California, San Diego faculty | University of Chicago alumni | 1930
births | 2007 deaths | American JewsViewsArticle Discussion Edit this

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> which are found in Earth life. Comets and other icy ...
>
> read more »

[dennyreno]

Biological warfare , also known as germ warfare , is the use of any
organism ( bacteria , virus or other disease-causing organism) or
toxin found in nature, as a weapon of war . It is meant to
incapacitate or kill an adversary.
The creation and stockpiling of biological weapons is outlawed by the
1972 Biological Weapons Convention , signed by over 100 states,
because a successful attack could conceivably result in thousands,
possibly even millions, of deaths and could cause severe disruptions
to societies and economies. Oddly enough, the convention prohibits
only creation and storage, but not usage, of these weapons. However,
the consensus among military analysts is that, except in the context
of bioterrorism , biological warfare is militarily of little use.

The main problem is that a biological warfare attack would take days
to implement, and therefore, unlike a nuclear or chemical attack,
would not immediately stop an advancing army.
As a strategic weapon, biological warfare is again militarily
problematic, because unless it is used to poison enemy civilian towns,
it is difficult to prevent the attack from spreading, either to allies
or to the attacker, and a biological warfare attack invites immediate
massive retaliation, usually in the same form.

Biological weapons characteristics
Ideal characteristics of biological weapons are high infectivity, high
potency, availability of vaccines, and delivery as an aerosol.

Diseases most likely to be considered for use as biological weapons
are contenders because of their lethality (if delivered efficiently),
and robustness (making aerosol delivery feasible).

The biological agents used in biological weapons can often be
manufactured quickly and easily. The primary difficulty is not the
production of the biological agent but delivery in an infective form
to a vulnerable target.

For example, anthrax is considered an excellent agent. We use it here
for discussion because it is historically important, and enough
information is public that this discussion can't be used as a manual.
First, it forms hardy spores, perfect for dispersal aerosols. Second,
pneumonic (lung) infections of anthrax usually do not cause secondary
infections in other people. Thus, the effect of the agent is usually
confined to the target. A pneumonic anthrax infection starts with
ordinary "cold" symptoms and quickly becomes lethal, with a fatality
rate that is 80% or higher. Finally, friendly personnel can be
protected with suitable antibiotics.

A mass attack using anthrax would require the creation of aerosol
particles of 1.5 to 5 micrometres. Too large and the aerosol would be
filtered out by the respiratory system. Too small and the aerosol
would be inhaled and exhaled. Also, at this size, nonconductive
powders tend to clump and cling because of electrostatic charges. This
hinders dispersion. So, the material must be treated with silica to
insulate and discharge the charges. The aerosol must be delivered so
that rain and sun does not rot it, and yet the human lung can be
infected. There are other technological difficulties as well.

Diseases considered for weaponization, or known to be weaponized
include anthrax , Ebola , Bubonic Plague , Cholera , Tularemia ,
Brucellosis , Q fever , Machupo , Coccidioides mycosis , Glanders ,
Melioidosis , Shigella , Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever , Typhus ,
Psisticosis , Yellow Fever , Japanese B Encephalitis , Rift Valley
Fever , and Smallpox . Naturally-occurring toxins that can be used as
weapons include Ricin , SEB , Botulism toxin , Saxitoxin , and many
Mycotoxin s.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Attacking Crops & Animals
Biological warfare can also specifically target plants to destroy
crops or defoliate vegetation. The United States and Briton discovered
plant growth regulators (i.e., herbicides ) during the Second World
War, and initiated a Herbicidal Warfare program that was eventually
used in Malaya and Vietnam in counter insurgency. Though herbicides
are chemicals, they are often grouped with biological warfare as
bioregulators in a similar manner as biotoxins.

The United States developed an anti-crop capability during the Cold
War that used plant diseases ( Bioherbicide s, or Mycoherbicide s) for
destroying enemy agriculture. It was believed that destruction of
enemy agriculture on a strategic scale could thwart Sino-Soviet
aggression in a general war. Diseases such as wheat blast and rice
blast were weaponized in aerial spray tanks and cluster bombs for
delivery to enemy water sheds in agricultural regions to initiate
epiphytotics (epidemics among plants). When the United States
renounced its offensive biological warfare program in 1969 and 1970,
the vast majority of its biological arsenal was composed of these
plant diseases.

Attacking animals is another area of biological warfare intended to
eliminate animal resources for transportation and food. In the First
World War German agents were arrested attempting to inoculate draft
animals with anthrax, and believed responsible for out breaks of
glanders in horses and mules. The British tainted small feed cakes
with anthrax in the Second World War as a potential means of attacking
German cattle for food denial, but never employed the weapon. In the
1950's the United States had a field trial with Hog Cholera.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Protective measures
The primary civil defense against biological weaponry is to wash one's
hands whenever one moves to a different building or set of people, and
avoid touching door knobs, walls, the ground and one's mouth and nose.
Washing literally sends the germs down the drain.

More exotic methods include decontamination, usually done with
household chlorine bleach (5% solution of sodium hypochlorite ). One
useful decontamination is to leave shoes in an entranceway and make
people wade and handwash in a footbath of bleach. Another useful
technique is to periodically decontaminate floors and door knobs.

Medical methods of civil defense include stockpiles of antibiotics and
vaccines, and training for quick, accurate diagnoses and treatment.
Many weaponized diseases are unfamiliar to general practitioners.

Positive pressure shelters are possible but not cost-effective except
for the most important installations. This is because in most attacks,
the agent will disperse in a long narrow ellipse downwind from the
release point. Persons outside the ellipse will not be affected except
by secondary infection. Persons within the release ellipse cannot be
helped by civil defense measures. They need medical diagnosis and
treatment as soon as possible.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The role of public health departments and disease surveillance
It is important to note that all of the classical and modern
biological weapons organisms are animal diseases, the only exception
being smallpox. Thus, in any use of biological weapons, it is highly
likely that animals will become ill either simultaneously with, or
perhaps earlier than humans. Indeed, in the largest biological weapons
"accident" known -- the anthrax outbreak in Sverdlovsk (now
Yekaterinburg) in the Soviet Union in 1979, sheep became ill with
anthrax as far as 200 kilometers from the release point of the
organism from a military facility in the southeastern portion of the
city (known as Compound 15 and still off limits to visitors today).

Thus, a robust surveillance system involving human clinicians and
veterinarians may identify a bioweapons attack early in the course of
an epidemic, permitting the prophylaxis of disease in the vast
majority of people (and/or animals) exposed but not yet ill. For
example in the case of anthrax, it is likely that by 24 -36 hours
after an attack, some small percentage of individuals (those with
compromised immune system or who had received a large dose of the
organism due to proximity to the release point) will become ill with
classical symptoms and signs (including a virtually unique chest X-ray
finding, often recognized by public health officials if they receive
timely reports). By making this data available to local public health
officials in real-time, most models of anthrax epidemics indicate that
more than 80% of an exposed population can receive antibiotic
treatment before becoming symptomatic, and thus avoiding the high
mortality of the disease.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Examples of biological warfare

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1984 Rajneeshee salmonella attack
In the small town of The Dalles, Oregon , followers of the Bhagwan
Shri Rajneesh (the Rajneeshee Cult ) attempted to control a local
election by infecting salad bars with salmonella . The attack caused
about 900 people to get sick. It is considered the first ever
bioterrorism case in US history.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2001 anthrax attack
In September and October of 2001 , several cases of anthrax broke out
in the United States in the 2001 anthrax attacks , caused
deliberately. This was a well-publicized act of bioterrorism . It
motivated efforts to define biodefense and biosecurity , where more
limited definitions of biosafety had focused on unintentional or
accidental impacts of agricultural and medical technologies.

On Jul 3, 1:06 am, dennyreno <dennyr...@gmail.com> wrote:
> http://www.watercrystals.com/soillessplants.htm
>
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> Grow Plants Without Soil.
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> sunlight will thrive in a hydrated Water Crystal solution. You'll need
> to add water only at the rate of evaporation.  Depending on climate,
> you won't need to touch that watering can for several weeks!
>
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>

> ---------------------------------------------------------------------------­-----

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[dennyreno]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALH84001

Help us provide free content to the world by donating today!Allan
Hills 84001

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from ALH84001)
Jump to: navigation, search
Allan Hills 84001

Meteorite fragment ALH 84001
Meteorite type: Achondrite
Class: Martian meteorite
Group: ALH 84001
Shock stage: B
Weathering grade: A/B
Country: Antarctica
Region: Allan Hills, Far Western Icefield
Coordinates: 76°55′13″S 156°46′25″E / 76.92028°S 156.77361°E /
-76.92028; 156.77361Coordinates: 76°55′13″S 156°46′25″E / 76.92028°S
156.77361°E / -76.92028; 156.77361[1]
Observed fall: No
Found date: 1984
Total Known Weight (TKW): 1930.9 g
Allan Hills 84001 (commonly abbreviated ALH 84001[1]) is a meteorite
found in Allan Hills, Antarctica on December 27, 1984 by a team of US
meteorite hunters from the ANSMET project. Like other members of the
group of SNCs (shergottite, nakhlite, chassignite), ALH 84001 is
thought to be from Mars. On discovery, its mass was 1.93 kg. It made
its way into headlines worldwide in 1996 when scientists announced
that it might contain evidence for microscopic fossils of Martian
bacteria.

Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Possible lifeforms
3 Origin on Mars
4 Student participation
5 See also
6 References
7 External links

[edit] History
This rock is theorized to be one of the oldest pieces of the solar
system, proposed to have crystallized from molten rock 4.5 billion
years ago. Based on hypotheses surrounding attempts to identify where
extraterrestrial rocks come from, it is supposed to have originated on
Mars and is related to other martian meteorites. The theory holds that
it was shocked and broken by one or more meteorite impacts on the
surface of Mars some 3.9 to 4.0 billion years ago, but remained on the
planet. It was later blasted off from the surface in a separate impact
about 15 million years ago and impacted Earth roughly 13,000 years
ago. These dates were established by a variety of radiometric dating
techniques, including samarium-neodymium (Sm-Nd), rubidium-strontium
(Rb-Sr), potassium-argon (K-Ar), and carbon-14.[2][3]

[edit] Possible lifeforms
On August 6, 1996[4] ALH 84001 became newsworthy when it was announced
that the meteorite may contain evidence for traces of life from Mars,
as published in an article in Science by David McKay of NASA.[5]

The electron microscope revealed chain structures in meteorite
fragment ALH84001Under the scanning electron microscope structures
were revealed that may be the remains—in the form of fossils—of
bacteria-like lifeforms. The structures found on ALH 84001 are 20-100
nanometres in diameter, similar in size to the theoretical
nanobacteria, but smaller than any known cellular life at the time of
their discovery. If the structures are really fossilized lifeforms,
they would be the first solid evidence of the existence of
extraterrestrial life, aside from the chance of their origin being
terrestrial contamination.[6]

The announcement of possible extraterrestrial life caused considerable
controversy at the time and opened up interest in Martian exploration.
When the discovery was announced, many immediately conjectured that
the fossils were the first true evidence of extraterrestrial life—
making headlines around the world, and even prompting U.S. President
Bill Clinton to make a formal televised announcement to mark the event.
[7]

Several tests for organic material have been performed on the
meteorite and amino acids and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)
have been found. The debate if the organic molecules were created by
nonbiological processes or are due to contamination from the contact
with Antarctic ice is still ongoing.[8][9]

As of 2006, some experts still argue that the microfossils are not
indicative of life, but instead are caused by contamination by earthly
biofilms. It has not yet conclusively been shown how the features were
formed, but similar features have been recreated in labs without
biological inputs.[4] Nevertheless, evidence continues to grow that
nanobacteria do exist, in spite of initial skepticism[10] (based on
the idea that the particles were too small to contain RNA).

Recent studies on ALH 84001 have shown that, although chances are low,
eventually, Martian rocks such as ALH 84001 could actually transfer
Martian life to Earth.[11] Bacterial spores, and rock dwelling
organisms are speculated to survive in space for 5 years, meaning
transfer of Martian life to our planet is theoretically possible.

This article may contain original research or unverified claims.
Please improve the article by adding references. See the talk page for
details. (May 2009)

If Mars's atmosphere at the time life started on Earth was like it is
now, though, survival and propagation of any life form after arriving
would be even less likely. The life form's native environment probably
would be completely unlike anywhere it would land on Earth. Mars has
an atmosphere many times thinner than that on top of Mount Everest,
with almost no water. A life form evolved to survive in such
conditions would almost invariably find dense air to be toxic, as it
would the relatively high temperatures[citation needed]: even the
Antarctic does not get as cold as much of Mars does most of the year.
[12] However, it is hypothesized that ALH 84001 originated from a time
period during which water may have existed on Mars.[4] Other
meteorites that have potential biological markings have generated less
interest because they do not originate from a "wet" Mars. ALH 84001 is
the only meteorite collected from such a time period.[4]

[edit] Origin on Mars
In September 2005, Vicky Hamilton of the University of Hawaii at Manoa
presented an analysis of the origin of ALH 84001 using data from the
Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Odyssey spacecraft orbiting Mars.
According to the analysis, Eos Chasma in the Valles Marineris canyon
appears to be the source of the meteorite.[13] The analysis was not
conclusive, in part because it was limited to parts of Mars not
obscured by dust.

[edit] Student participation
The analysis of ALH84001 was unusual in that an undergraduate student,
Anne Taunton of the University of Arkansas, performed much of the SEM
work used to correlate the suspected nanobacterial fossils with known
terrestrial nanobacterial fossils. NASA's David McKay hired Anne
Taunton for a 10-week student internship to perform the SEM analysis,
but did not inform her about the nature of what she was investigating.
[14] This technique is known as a single blind. Taunton reported the
morphology of nanofossils in ALH84001 to be very similar to
terrestrial samples without knowing that she was describing a Martian
meteorite.

[edit] See also
Panspermia, or more correctly Exogenesis
Deception Point - Fiction around an ALH84001 theme

[edit] References
^ a b "Meteoritical Bulletin Database: Allan Hills 84001".
http://tin.er.usgs.gov/meteor/metbull.php?sea=alh+84001&sfor=names&ants=&falls=&stype=contains&lrec=50&map=ge&browse=&country=All&srt=name&categ=All&mblist=All&phot=&snew=0&pnt=no&code=604.
^ Nyquist, L. E.; Wiesmann, H.; Shih, C.-Y.; Dasch, J. (1999). "Lunar
Meteorites and the Lunar Crustal SR and Nd Isotopic Compositions".
Lunar and Planetary Science 27: 971. Bibcode: 1996LPI....27..971N.
^ Borg, Lars; et al. (1999). "The Age of the Carbonates in Martian
Meteorite ALH84001". Science 286 (5437): 90–94. doi:10.1126/science.
286.5437.90.
^ a b c d Crenson, Matt (2006-08-06). "After 10 years, few believe
life on Mars". Associated Press (on space.com.
http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/ap_060806_mars_rock.html.
Retrieved on 2006-08-06.
^ McKay, David S.; et al. (1996). "Search for Past Life on Mars:
Possible Relic Biogenic Activity in Martian Meteorite ALH84001".
Science 273 (5277): 924–930. doi:10.1126/science.273.5277.924.
^ McSween, H. Y. (1997). "Evidence for life in a martian meteorite?".
GSA Today 7 (7): 1–7. PMID 11541665.
^ Clinton, Bill (1996-08-07). "President Clinton Statement Regarding
Mars Meteorite Discovery". NASA. http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/snc/clinton.html.
Retrieved on 2006-08-07.
^ Bada, J. L.; Glavin, D. P.; McDonald, G. D.; Becker, L. (1998). "A
Search for Endogenous Amino Acids in Martian Meteorite ALH84001".
Science 279 (5349): 362–365. doi:10.1126/science.279.5349.362.
^ Becker L., Glavin D. P., Bada J. L. (1997). "Polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Antarctic Martian meteorites, carbonaceous
chondrites, and polar ice". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 61: 475–
481. doi:10.1016/S0016-7037(96)00400-0.
^ Cisar J, Xu D, Thompson J, Swaim W, Hu L, Kopecko D (2000). "An
alternative interpretation of nanobacteria-induced biomineralization".
PNAS 97 (21): 11511–11515. doi:10.1073/pnas.97.21.11511. PMID
11027350.
^ Paine, Michael (October 1996). "Transpermia - microbes hitch a ride
between planets". http://users.tpg.com.au/users/tps-seti/swaprock.html.
Retrieved on 2008-03-21.
^ :: NASA Quest > Aerospace ::
^ Birthplace of famous Mars meteorite pinpointed. New Scientist
article. URL accessed March 18, 2006.
^ Taylor, Michael Ray, 1999. Dark Life. 0684841916, p. 90.
Mittlefehldt D. W. (1994) "ALH84001, a cumulate orthopyroxenite member
of the SNC meteorite group". Meteoritics, 29, 214-221. URL accessed
March 18, 2006.
Stephan T., Jessberger E. K., Heiss C. H. and Rost D. (2003) "TOF-SIMS
analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Allan Hills 84001".
Meteorit. Planet. Sci. 38, 109–116.

[edit] External links
NASA - The ALH 84001 Meteorite
Allan Treiman's dissection of ALH84001 literature for the non-
specialist
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Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Hills_84001"
Categories: Achondrite meteorites | Astrobiology | Mars | Natural
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[dennyreno]

http://www.defensetech.org/archives/002220.html

Sticky Foam Gets Serious
Sticky foam is the custard pie of the nonlethals world, often seen
more as a practical joke than a weapon. In fact, it worked well enough
at stopping people, but suffers from some critical disadvantages, as
Noah pointed out a while back.

One of the big problems is that having slimed a rioter, you can’t
arrest them or take them away. And if the sticky foam covers their
mouth and nose, it can be anything but non-lethal.

After some initial enthusiasm for the idea during the Marine
deployment to Somalia in 1995, the idea faded and has been in limbo
ever since. Now sticky foam is back, defending nuclear weapon
stockpiles, according to this report from Government Security.

The report explains that some facilities storing uranium and plutonium
now boast steel doors with containers of hydrocarbon solution built
into them. Breach the door, and the liquid comes foaming out under
high pressure, expanding in bulk by a factor of forty and sealing the
breach with an impassable obstacle.

The idea is that sticky foam will delay any attackers for long enough
for the defenders to call in reinforcements. Experiments with
explosives found it was impossible to break through the doors without
the foam barrier deploying. Another test showed how a defender could
release the foam by shooting it with an M-16. According to Ronald
Timm, president of RETA Security:

“If you're on the high security side of a door and attackers are
attempting to break through, you can use your weapon to shoot the door…
The sticky foam will deploy, delay the attackers, and give you time to
call for help.”

The doors are already installed at undisclosed sites. In the new role,
the foam's drawbacks become advantages. Keeping attackers stuck in
place for as long as possible is helpful…and there are unlikely to be
protests if any of them tries to force a way through and comes to a
sticky end.

-- David Hambling

March 7, 2006 07:20 AM | Bizarro, Less-lethal

On Jul 3, 1:06 am, dennyreno <dennyr...@gmail.com> wrote:
> http://www.watercrystals.com/soillessplants.htm
>
> ---------------------------------------------------------------------------­-----
>

> Grow Plants Without Soil.
> (Almost) never water your house plants again!
>
> Houseplants and flowers that typically like lots of water and filtered
> sunlight will thrive in a hydrated Water Crystal solution. You'll need
> to add water only at the rate of evaporation.  Depending on climate,
> you won't need to touch that watering can for several weeks!
>
> Here's how to do it.
>

> ---------------------------------------------------------------------------­-----

> ---------------------------------------------------------------------------­-----

[dennyreno]

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zD1kW79GzDc

mana from heaven.

On Jul 3, 12:55 am, dennyreno <dennyr...@gmail.com> wrote:

[dennyreno]

Here is the Carl Sagan Video you needed to see about the evolution of
the cell that lead to dna!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FZtRn1fst-g

On Jul 2, 8:18 pm, dennyreno <dennyr...@gmail.com> wrote:

[dennyreno]

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T_11Om26vkY

Above is the youtube link to clip 8 from the movie The devils rain! In
it you find a large round bottle boiling flask with the sould of
people in it being destoyed. On top of the flask is a devils head.
Thanks to the CIA they have planted a small clue about the devils head
rock and the round bottom boiling flask experiment with the molecules!
What Has happened in all these years concerning this information and
what does it have to do with the present and the future? You have to
read all the information in this post and figure it out for your self!
Flask three souls! Never live in the CIA Hollywood information router!

Dennis Garrett

> > - Show quoted text -- Hide quoted text -

[dennyreno]

People melt!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mv7h2p1t680

[newgirlf...@gmail.com]

read post

[satan...@gmail.com]

good

On Thursday, July 2, 2009 at 8:05:42 PM UTC-7, dennyreno wrote:

[sukhi...@gmail.com]

Sukhlt

[newgirlf...@gmail.com]

Cool

[Dennis Garrett]

good


On Thursday, July 2, 2009 at 8:05:42 PM UTC-7, dennyreno wrote:

[newgirlf...@gmail.com]

good

[satan...@gmail.com]

good