Article of interest for you -- Fri, 01 Jan 99
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xXx Secret Language of the Kilim
* Turgay Tuna
Kilims, a kind of flatweave, are more ancient than their
relative the carpet, but just how ancient is difficult to discover.
Paintings which appear to depict flatweave rugs have been found on the
walls of Egyptian tombs dating from 1700-1800 BC, and some
archaeologists have interpreted finds from excavations in Central
Asia, Anatolia and the Middle East as showing that they may go back
even earlier. But what is certain is that some of the motifs which
appear in their designs are of even greater antiquity than weaving
itself.
Symbolic motifs whose roots go back to neolithic times are found on
Turkish kilims and are echoed in flatweaves across the world, from
those of the Berber tribes in the Atlas mountains and the nomads of
Afghanistan, to the Nahajo Indians of the United States and the
Indians of the Andes in South America. These universal motifs conceal
a rich language based on legend, mythology and ancient beliefs.
Where Turkish kilims are concerned local variations make those of each
region and even village distinctive. So let us take a look at some of
the most frequently occurring motifs in Turkish kilims.
The eye motif which features in the folk art of many countries in Asia
and Africa is a charm against bad luck and misfortune arising from the
evil eye cast by those who look upon them with envy or ill intent. The
many different stylised eye motifs which appear on kilims are
therefore woven into the design as protection for the members of the
household. A similar symbol of protection from misfortune is the
triangular talisman known as muska.
The rams horn motif is a symbol widely used in neolithic times, and
legends relating to the horns of rams or cattle were to be found among
the Hittites, Egyptians and Phoenicians. In ancient Anatolian
civilisations this motif symbolised the power of the gods, and among
the nomadic communities of Turkey today it symbolises both power and
fertility, in particular male virility.
The wheat ear motif is another ancient symbol, representing the
fertility of the earth and hence plenty and prosperity, commonly found
on kilims. Like the wheat ear, of which each single grain has the
power to become many, so the pomegranate with its hundreds of seeds in
the single fruit, represented wealth and plenty. The pomegranate was
seen as one of the principal fruits of paradise, and sprinkling
pomegranate grains in the home of a newly married couple was thought
to bring them happiness and healthy offspring. Thus the pomegranate,
too, gained its place among kilim motifs.
The idea of flying like a bird and being as free as a bird has
fascinated human beings since very early times, and hence the bird
motif has come to mean freedom, and the related concept of good news
brought from afar.
A stylised rams skin is an expression of wealth in Caucasian and
Anatolian folklore. The long adventures of the Argonauts in their
search for the golden fleece which took them across the Black Sea to
Caucasia, and the trials they overcame in order to obtain it were a
popular legend retold over the centuries. It has left its mark on
Anatolian kilims in the form of the rams skin motif.
The spider motif has had sacred significance for Anatolian people
since ancient times. The legend of Arachne, the Lydian maiden who
boasted of her weaving skill and was consequently turned into a spider
by the goddess Athena, is evidence that the spider motif goes back to
very early times in Anatolia.
Tooth-like shapes pendant beneath a triangular form are the stylised
motif of plaited hair, which is woven into their designs by unmarried
girls as an expression of their wish for happy marriage. Another
symbolic motif going back to prehistoric times is the diamond shaped
motif known as hand on waist, which is believed to be a stylised
representation of a pregnant woman, and expresses the wish of the
woman weaving the kilim to bring healthy chidren into the world.
The tree of life is a motif which recurs in many decorative arts of
eastern countries, with its roots embedded in the fertile earth
beneath, and its branches reaching up into the sky. Its mystical
connotations refer to the link between mortal life on earth and the
spiritual world of the heavens above, so symbolising the immortality
of the human soul.
Snakes again have a long past as a symbol rooted in many myths which
have come down to us from the mists of time. The snake is depicted as
the guardian of the tree of life, a role which probably arises from
its annual sloughing of its skin, making it a symbol of rebirth and
life energy.
Seeds or grain, as in the case of wheat and pomegranates, are found as
a symbol of fertility on kilims. Another symbol of fertility is that
of the fish, which appears on the kilims of some regions.
Turkish kilims, once looked down upon as a rustic second cousin to the
carpet, have in recent years found a large overseas market. Even
though the buyers may not be aware of the deep symbolic significance
of their designs, their rich colours and intricate geometric
compositions have turned them into a popular accessory of modern
interior decoration. These works of art, once woven by Anatolian women
only for their own homes, are now exported all over the world, to
Japan and the United States, Europe and Australia. Understanding the
meanings of the motifs in their striking designs enhances their beauty
still further, and reveals the story which each kilim has to tell.
* Turgay Tuna is a freelance writer.
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xXx Royal Portraits in Ottoman Miniature
*By Elmon Hançer Karoğlu
Portraits of the sultans became a feature of Ottoman
miniature painting thanks to Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror (1451-1481)
who patronised Italian artists. Islam banned the use of objects
decorated with human figures to prevent idolatrous practices, but this
prohibition was modified by subsequent Islamic jurists, and Sultan
Mehmed believed it could be lifted altogether by the leader of a
powerful Islamic state like himself. Sultan Mehmed developed both
diplomatic and trade relations with Italy, and through the Venetian
embassy in Istanbul invited painters expert in depicting the human
form, sculptors and bronze casters, to Istanbul to work at the Ottoman
palace.
In this way Constanza da Ferrara (who sculpted bronze medallions
bearing a bust portrait of Sultan Mehmed in profile), Matteo di Pasti,
Bertoldo di Giovanni, Gentile Bellini (who painted portraits of the
sultan in oils), and other Italian artists came to Istanbul.
Portraiture was continued by Turkish artists who saw their work, and
although their figures were not anatomically perfect they were
realistic in concept. Sinan Beys portrait of Sultan Mehmed smelling a
rose differs from the western idea of portraiture in its schematic
aspects, but nonetheless displays a sensitive and warm realism.
This is regarded as the first true portrait by a Turkish painter, and
resulted in a tradition of portrait albums known as Silsilenâme in
Turkish art. These are significant illustration of the attempt by
Sultan Mehmed II to undermine the ban on human representation,
although one that was not entirely successful. Portraiture as a whole
and specifically portraiture of the sultans survived only by fits and
starts in Turkish art, and not until the 19th century did the sultans
again commission western style portraits of themselves.
Some researchers believe that many works dating from Mehmeds reign
were destroyed by his son Bayezid II, who was a more conservative man.
However, miniature illustrations of literary and historical works
progressed under his successors. The Süleymannâme in the Chester
Beatty collection in Dublin is one of the most important of these
works, whose miniatures are valuable historical documentation of their
time.
A medallion 38 mm in diameter depicting Sultan Selim I Yavuz in
profile can be seen in the Museo Nazionale in Florence. His features
are hard and he has no beard. He is wearing a quilted turban. On the
reverse are the Egyptian pyramids and a castle, so the medallion must
post-date Selims Egyptian campaign and therefore date from 1517 to
1520. The artist is unknown.
Portrait painting fell into abeyance under Bayezid II, but regained
momentum with the painter Nigarî during the reign of Sultan Süleyman I
(the Magnificent, 1520-1566). Nigarî was the cognomen of the
miniaturist Nakkaş Reis Haydar who executed portraits of Süleymen I,
his son Selim II and Lord High Admiral Barbaros Hayrettin Paşa. During
Süleyman Is reign notable Flemish and Austrian artists like Peter
Ceoq, Melchior Lorich, Jerome and Daniel Hopfer came to Istanbul.
Under Murad III (1574-1595) the greatest example of Ottoman royal
portraiture was created, a Silsilenâme album by Nakkaş Osman
containing portraits of all 12 Ottoman sultans up to that time. These
portraits are realistic in character, complying with historical
accounts of the physical features and personalities of each sultan. As
only to be expected they differ from western art in terms of their
colours, drawing techniques and materials, instead complying entirely
with the miniature tradition.
Portrait painting lost what momentum it had in the 17th century,
reflecting political and economic decline, although Turkish commercial
painters continued to produce portrait albums based on earlier
şemailnâme, books containing descriptions of famous figures.
The 18th century saw an expansion of Ottoman relations with Europe, an
interest in western culture among the sultans, and an influx of
western artists who exerted an influence on local artists. This laid
the ground for a new style in Ottoman miniature painting. This new
style is first seen in the imperial portraits painted early in the
century by Levnî, a miniaturist whose real name was Abdülcelil Çelebi.
This portrait album entitled Kebir Musavver Silsilenâme depicts the
sultans in a style with affinities to both miniature and western
traditions. They represent a transitional period in which the artist
combines a realistic depiction of facial features with a somewhat
superficial attempt to leave behind the meticulous detail of miniature
while retaining its traditional layout.
The second half of the 18th century saw another Ottoman artist,
Rafael, take these innovations one step further. He used more natural
colours, shaded one colour into another and softened the boundaries
between colours. He used new materials: tempera and oil colours on
paper. Gradually portraits spilled out in the pages of books onto
canvases, although the detail typical of miniature painting continued
to occur from time to time.
Between the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century, the
work of Kapıdağlı Konstantin finally left traces of miniature painting
behind altogether in favour of western style portrait painting in oils
on canvas. Kapıdağlı Konstantin painted small portraits in oils in
which the sultans are framed by medallions and depicted in
three-quarter profile, half length and standing. Medallion portraits,
which were a tradition begun probably by Rafael during the reign of
Abdülhamid I (1774-1789), were mass produced by painting studios, and
took the form of family trees with the portraits hung on the branches
of the tree. These family trees covering an entire canvas and painted
in oils reflect the synthesis of Central Asian Turkish and Western
European culture as it emerged under the Ottomans.
Despite the process of change from 16th century manuscripts
illuminated with miniatures to large 19th century oil paintings, and
changes in the dress of the monarchs themselves, the Ottoman sultans
were instantly always recognisable as such, whether in portrait albums
or family trees, artefacts or postcards.
* Elmon Hançer Karoğlu is an art historian.