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May 21, 2010 —
In many public school science classrooms today, Darwinism is taught
uncritically as a scientific fact. Eugenie Scott of the National
Center for Science Education (NCSE) defends that practice, and Casey
Luskin of the Discovery Institute (DI) contests it. This month the
two in their own venues argued their points of view, and another
educator weighed in on a larger issue about science education.
In Nature,1 Scott wrote a book review of How Science Works: Evolution.
A Student Primer by R. John Ellis (Springer, 2010). The phrase “How
science works” is often one of her own catch-phrases, so it would seem
she would warm up to this pro-Darwin book, but she had some
criticisms. “The public misunderstands and mistrusts the scientific
explanation of evolution morethan any other branch of research,
particularly in the United States,” she began. She thought Ellis did
a pretty good job explaining how science works: “Students learn about
testing multiple hypotheses, reliance on natural causes, the
open-endedness of science, its lack of dogmatism and the function of
peer review and replicating results.” But she got a little
nervous when he went overboard on his naturalism: “
He contrasts naturalism – the ideology that only the physical universe
exists, operating “according to inbuilt, unvarying regularities” –
with supernaturalism, the view that non-physical “active agents”
interact with the physical world. Religion, “the belief in some
superhuman controlling power or powers”, is a subset of the latter, he
writes. Ellis distinguishes between the methodological and
philosophical aspects of naturalism, but regularly conflates it with
science, which is not an ideology.
Scott also had problems with his “uneven” definitions of evolution.
She thinks he gave short shrift to common ancestry. He defined
evolution as “change in genetic composition of populations with time,”
hardly a phrase pregnant with images of bacteria to man. She thought
his definition of homology also left the reader with the “wrong
impression that homology is merely anatomical similarity.” This book
review, therefore, shows Scott’s views remain the same as when she
debated Phillip Johnson in the 1980s:
Science is not an ideology, the rules of science require
methodological naturalism, the only methodologically naturalistic view
of biology available is Darwinian evolution, because it does not
involve supernaturalism, therefore we must teach Darwin in the schools
and keep out creationism and intelligent design. Scott’s last
paragraph says all the reader needs to know about her views, by the
company she prefers. “It is welcome when scientists explain evolution
to the public. But for a better introduction
to the topic I would recommend Jerry Coyne’s Why Evolution is True
(Viking, 2009), Richard Dawkins’s The Greatest Show on Earth (Free
Press, 2009), Donald Prothero’s Evolution (Columbia University Press,
2007) and Neil Shubin’s Your Inner Fish (Pantheon, 2008).”
Casey Luskin begs to differ. Students benefit from hearing Darwinism
taught scientifically, he said (i.e., with critical thinking), and he
wrote a new paper to support it. The paper, based on a presentation
he gave last fall at the University of St. Thomas, has been published
in the university’s Journal of Law & Public Policy,2 The paper made
three points summarized by Luskin on Evolution News & Views:
1. The inquiry method of teaching science stresses process over
content.
2. There are no legal obstacles to teaching scientific critiques of
prevailing theories.
3. There is ample evidence of controversy in evolutionary
literature.
The full paper can be downloaded as a PDF file from the Discovery
Institute website.
Luskin got support for his thesis from an unexpected source – Science
magazine, usually a staunchly pro-Darwin, pro-NCSE source. Last
month, Jonathan Osborne (School of Education, Stanford University)
wrote a review article entitled, “Arguing to Learn in Science: The
Role of Collaborative, Critical Discourse,”3 in which he said
basically the same thing: students benefit by learning the process of
debate about controversial subjects – including evolution.
Argument and debate are common in science, yet they are virtually
absent from science education. Recent research shows, however, that
opportunities for students to engage in collaborative discourse and
argumentation offer a means of enhancing student conceptual
understanding and students’ skills and capabilities with scientific
reasoning. As one of the hallmarks of thescientist is critical,
rational skepticism, the lack of opportunities to develop the ability
to reason and argue scientifically would appear to be a significant
weakness in contemporary educational practice. In short, knowing what
is wrong matters as much as knowing what is right. This paper presents
a summary of the main features of this body of research and discusses
its implications for the teaching and learning of science.
Osborne goes on to say that argumentation is not peripheral to the
practice of science, but “core to its practice, and without argument
and evaluation, the construction of reliable knowledge would be
impossible.” In education, however, scientific explanations are given
with the presumption that they are true. Students are not being given
the opportunity to experience howclaims are supported by evidence,
warrants, and qualifiers, and subjected to counter-claims, rebuttals
and counter-arguments. “Consequently, science can appear to its
students as a monolith of facts, an authoritative discourse where the
discursive exploration of ideas, their implications, and their
importance is absent,” Osborne lamented. “Students then emerge with
naïve ideas or misconceptions about the nature of science itself,”
even though the AAAS and National Research Council endorse the value
of argumentation in learning science.
This is all fine and good, but surely Osborne is not referring to
evolution, is he? Aren’t all educators and scientists insistent that
evolution is a scientific fact, about which there is no reason to
argue?
The study of reasoning also offers an opportunity to explore the types
of arguments used in science, which may be abductive (inferences to
the best possible explanation), such as Darwin’s arguments for the
theory of evolution; hypothetico-deductive, such as Pasteur’s
predictions about the outcome of the first test of his anthrax
vaccine; or simply inductive generalizations archetypal represented by
“laws.”
Osborne pointed out that students find classroom teaching that
emphasizes argumentation skills much more engaging, too. He ended by
arguing that science education cannot be separated from matters of
epistemology:
“research has demonstrated that teaching students to reason, argue,
and think critically will enhance students’ conceptual learning. This
will only happen, however, if students are provided structured
opportunities to engage in deliberative exploration of ideas,
evidence, and argument—in short, how we know what we know, why it
matters, and how it came to be.”
1. Eugenie Scott, “Back to basics by way of evolution,” Nature
Volume: 465, 164, 13 May 2010, doi:10.1038/465164a.
2. Casey Luskin, “The Constitutional and Pedagogical Benefits of
Teaching Evolution Scientifically,” University of St. Thomas Journal
of Law & Public Policy, Vol. IV(1):204-277 (Fall, 2009). 3. Jonathan
Osborne, “Arguing to Learn in Science: The Role of Collaborative,
Critical Discourse,” Science23 April 2010: Vol. 328. no. 5977, pp. 463
- 466, DOI: 10.1126/science.1183944.
The problem with Eugenie Scott of the National Center for Science
Education is that she never received a good science education. She
got a defective education from the triumphalist Julian Huxley era when
logical positivism was in swing and Darwinism was presented as a done
deal. That was before Quine and Kuhn and Feyerabend upset all the
applecarts; Lakatos, Laudan, van Fraasen and many others undermined
everything we thought we understood about “how science works.” Even
Osborne’s short list begs many questions about scientific reasoning –
i.e., what is meant by a law of nature? Scott is living in the 1940s
and needs a refresher course in how science works. She needs to learn
about abductive reasoning (used extensively by Stephen Meyer in
Signature in the Cell). She also needs a refresher course in logic so
that she does not make self-refuting statements, like stating the
ideology that methodological naturalism is not an ideology, or
claiming that science cannot refer to the supernatural, but then
employing reason to make that claim, when reason is not made of
particles or forces, and refers to logical truths that are universal,
timeless, necessary and certain.
Eugenie Scott needs to go take classes in Philosophy of Science and
Elementary Logic, particularly in how not to be inconsistent. Her
definition of science includes testing multiple hypotheses, as long as
the hypothesis selection process can exclude ones she doesn’t like.
Her science is fine with natural causes, as long as she can dip into
the supernatural causes she needs, like logic and reason. Her science
is open-ended, as long as she can close off the ends she doesn’t like.
Her science lacks dogmatism, as long as she can be dogmatic about the
parts she wants to be dogmatic about. Her science is fine with peer
review, as long as the pool of peers is protected against the peers
she doesn’t like. Her science is fine with replicating results, as
long as she doesn’t have to replicate the parts she can’t, like
universal common descent. Her science believes in following the rules
of “how science works,” as long as she and her totalitarian Darwin
Party hacks get to make the rules. Is this the kind of shallow,
uninformed, naïve, partisan, illogical thinking that should be
representing science education at